CLINICAL PATHOLOGY

Question 1

What is clinical pathology

Answer 1

Deals with examination of blood, urine, exudates, etc, collected from live animals in order to diagnose a disease.
Also, to determine prognosis, monitor the course of a disease, screen apparently healthy animals for presence of a disease or evaluate therapy

Question 2

What are the different section of clinical pathology

Answer 2

Haematology
Clinical Chemistry (also called Chemical Pathology or Clinical Biochemistry) and
Exfoliative Cytology.

Question 3

What is Haematology

Answer 3

The Study of blood (Cellular elements), blood-forming tissues and diseases of blood.

Question 4

What is haematopoiesis and site of Haematopoiesis

Answer 4

Haematopoiesis is the process of blood cells formation

Sites of blood cell formation

Yolk sac-in the first few weeks of gestation.

Liver and spleen-with time in gestation.

Bone marrow- later part of foetal life and throughout normal adult life

Question 5

What are Stem cells

Answer 5

Stem cells
most primitive, undifferentiated mesenchymal cells; morphologic characteristics similar to those of immature developmental forms of all cell types.
Now thought that common (pluripotential) stem cell, through cell division and differentiation, gives rise to a series of progenitor cells for 3 marrow cell lines.

Question 6

What are the Marrow cell line

Answer 6

3 Marrow cell lines are:
Erythroid,
Granulocytic and monocytic,
Megakaryocytic, as well as to a common lymphoid stem cell

Question 7

What are the characteristics mof stem cells

Answer 7

Pluripotential and multipotential stem cells (CFU-GEMM or CD34+ cells)
have capacity for self-renewal.
differentiate into progenitor cells (Colony-Forming Units cells-CFU-cells).

Question 8

What controls the differenciation in stem cell - lines

Answer 8

Differentiation is controlled by growth-promoting stimuli produced by marrow stromal cells, which include SCF, IL-3, IL-9 IL-1 and Erythropoietin (kidney).

Question 9

What are Progenitor cell and their characteristics

Answer 9

Progenitor cells
Also called Colony-Forming Units cells-CFU-cells
Earliest detectable is CFU-GEMM (give rise to granulocytes, erythrocytes, monocytes or megakaryocytes)

Progenitor cells have limited capacity for self-renewal and differentiate into precursor cells

Question 10

mention 5 mature and specialized progenitor cell

Answer 10

CFU-GM (gives rise to granulocytes or monocytes),
CFU-E (gives rise to erythrocytes)
CFU-M (gives rise to monocytes)
CFU-Meg (gives rise to megakaryocytes)
CFU-Eo (gives rise to eosinophils) are unipotential

Question 11

What is the earlist and recongnisable progenitor cell

Answer 11

CFU -GEMM

Question 12

What are precursor cell and their characteristics

Answer 12

Precursor cells
Cells with no capacity for self-renewal but proliferate while differentiating into mature, functional cells.

These are the first cells recognizable as members of a particular cell lines

Question 13

What is erythropoiesis? and where does it take place in ammal and birds

Answer 13

Erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation)
In mammals, it occurs extravascularly in the bone marrow parenchyma,

In birds it takes place within vascular sinuses of the bone marrow (intravascular or intrasinusoidal development).

Question 14

What are the sequence of the developmen of Erytrocytes

Answer 14

Stem Cell→CFU-GEMM →BFU-E →CFU-E →rubriblast →Prorubricyte →rubricyte →metarubricyte →reticulocyte
→mature erythrocyte.

Question 15

What are the cytopasmic and nucleus changes occuring in erythropoiesis

Answer 15

Generally the cells become smaller.
Nuclei become smaller; their chromatin becomes more condensed and aggregated.
Division ceases at late rubricyte stage ( when haemoglobin concentration has reached a critical concentration).

Nucleus is extruded at metarubricyte stage leading the formation of a reticulocyte in mammals.

Reticulocytes and mature erythrocytes retain their nuclei in the avian, reptalia, pisces
Cytoplasm; colour changes from blue, which was due to abundance of rough endoplasmic reticulum to orange as haemoglobin is formed and RNA is lost.

It takes about 5 days from stimulation of erythropoietic progenitor to release of reticulocytes into peripheral blood

Question 16

What is the characteristics of Rubriblast

Answer 16

Rubriblast
Have characteristics of other blast forms.

Cytoplasm stains light blue in young forms but becomes superimposed with reddish tint in more mature forms-cytoplasm being purplish-blue in colour.

Nucleus is round, contains nucleoli and nuclear chromatin pattern is delicate.

Question 17

What is the characteristics of prorubricytes

Answer 17

Prorubricyte
Smaller than rubriblasts with less delicate nuclear chromatin pattern.
Nucleoli are indefinite or absent
Cytoplasm is predominantly blue or basophilic
Nucleus is commonly located in the centre and surrounded by a narrow zone of blue-staining cytoplasm.

Question 18

What is the characteristics of Rubricyte

Answer 18

Rubricyte
Smaller than prorubricyte
Nuclear chromatin arrangement in a pattern suggestive of spokes of a wheel due to presence of darkly stained portions of chromatin separated by light streaks.
Cytoplasm is bluish-red or polychromic

Question 19

What is the characteristics of metarubricyte

Answer 19

Metarubricyte
Cytoplasm is predominantly red
Nucleus is piknotic and appears as blue-black mass with no distinguishable chromatin strands

Question 20

What is the characteristics of Reticulocyte

Answer 20

Reticulocyte
The non-nucleated cell of the erythroid series
When stained by supravital stain (e.g. New Methylene Blue stain), one or more granules or, more commonly, a diffuse network of fibrils
Cells that are indistinguishable from mature erythrocytes in routinely stained blood smears but are usually larger.

Question 21

What is the characteristics of Erytrocyte

Answer 21

Erythrocyte
The mature cell of the erythroid series.

Question 22

What are the general regulator of Erythropoiesis

Answer 22

General factors
Hypoxia → erythropoietin
Growth factor
Vitamins

Question 23

What are the maturation factors

Answer 23

Maturation factors
Vitamin B 12
Folic acid

Question 24

What are the factors Necessary for Haemoglobin Synthesis

Answer 24

Factors necessary haemoglobin synthesis Vitamin C → helps in iron absorption (Fe +++ → Fe ++) Proteins → amino acids for globin synthesis Iron & copper → heme synthesis Calcium, bile salts, nickel

Question 25

What is the first precursor cell in the Granulocytic series

Answer 25

MYELOBLAST

Question 26

What is the Characteristic of myeloblast

Answer 26

Myeloblast Has fine chromatin structure and contains no cytoplasmic granules Nucleoli are usually visible and cytoplasm is distinctly basophilic These Cells in association with identifiable cells of the granulocytic series should be tentatively classified as myeloblasts

Question 27

What is the Characteristic of progranulocytes

Answer 27

Progranulocyte Nuclear chromatin is denser than in blast cell. Darkly stained azurophilic or non-specific granules present in the cytoplasm. Nucleoli are visible. Cytoplasm is less intensely blue, while nuclear/Cytoplasmic ratio is altered such that the cytoplasm appears to be more abundant than in less mature blast forms..

Question 28

What is the Characteristic of myelocytes,

Answer 28

Myelocyte This cell contains specific granules, which are identifiable by their staining characteristic as neutrophilic, eosinophilic or basophilic. Nucleus is round or oval and the chromatin is coarser. Nucleoli not visible at this stage of development. Cytoplasm at this stage has lost its basophilic properties and stains faint greyish-pink.

Question 29

What is the Characteristic of metamyelocytes,

Answer 29

Metamyelocyte This cell closely resembles myelocyte but has slightly indented nucleus with opposite sides being more or less parallel. Nucleus often resembles kidney shape. Cytoplasmic granules (eosinophilic, basophilic or neutrophilic)

Question 30

What are th charateristics of Band cells

Answer 30

Band cell Has nucleus that resembles a coiled band. Opposite sides of the nucleus are more or less parallel.

Question 31

What is Bandemia

Answer 31

The presence of inmature White blood cell in the blood stream it could cause a lot of systemic issues like occuling blood vessel ETC.

Question 32

where are lymphocyte formed from? outline the member of the cell line

Answer 32

Lymphocytes are formed in the lymphoid tissues found in spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches. LYMPHOBLAST PROLYMPHOCYTE LYMPHOCYTE

Question 33

The throbocytic series

Answer 33

Megakaryoblast This resembles other undifferentiated stem cells; nucleus large. The cytoplasm stains light blue with outer layer tending to differentiate as a darker blue vacuolated zone. Cytoplasmic masses appear to be breaking off at the margin of the cell.

Question 34

What are the charateristics of Band neutrophils

Answer 34

THEIR LOBES ARE EQUI-DISTANCE FROM EACH OTHER ALSO THIER LOBES ARE OF EQUAL DIAMETER IN LENGTH

Question 35

Monocytic series?

Answer 35

Young forms, particularly monoblast may be difficult to differentiate from other immature cells in the bone marrow. The monoblast, usually larger than the corresponding blast cell of the neutrophilic and erythrocytic series. Nucleoli are prominent and cytoplasm is very finely granular and basophilic. As monocytes mature, it begins to assume the characteristic of the cell commonly seen in peripheral blood..

Question 36

What are the means of erytrocyte mass evaluation

Answer 36

Means of evaluating erythrocyte mass This is evaluated by determination of: packed cell volume (PCV, HI, VPRC) haemoglobin concentration (Hb concentration) total red blood cell count (RBC count). The values of these three erythrocyte parameters are used to calculate erythrocytic indices used in characterising anaemia, morphologically.

Question 37

What is erythron and function

Answer 37

The erythron A widely dispersed mass of erythroid cells, which includes circulating erythrocytes and bone marrow precursor, progenitor and stem cells. Its function is oxygen transport