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cog final exam Flashcards

1
Q

Why don’t definitions work well as a form of categorization

A
  1. not good for natural objects
    not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features.
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2
Q

Explain the prototype approach of finding the average case.

A

features that are common creates average of category members encountered in the past

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3
Q

give an example of prototypical objects that have high family resemblance with other catgeory members

A

Sparrows = high family resemblance = many overlapping features with other birds

Penguins = low family resemblance = few overlapping features

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4
Q

explain the method sentence verification technique. in the green study

A

Green study

Say “yes” if two identical colors are presented

Say “no” if two different colors are presented

The word “green” primes the yes-response – but more for prototypical greens

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5
Q

What causes prototypical objects to be named first

A

Naming effect

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6
Q

Prototypical objects are more effected by the __________

A

Priming effect

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7
Q

Whats an exemplar

A

an actual category member, not abstract averages.

Based on previous experiences with that category

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8
Q

Which approach works better Prototypes or exemplars?

A

Exemplars work best for small categories:
- U.S Presidents
Prototypes work best for large categories
- Birds

Prototypes are better for learning new categories early on.

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9
Q

Whats special about basic level categories

A

tends to be more psychologically privileged
Name objects at this level
more info

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10
Q

How do we demonstrate the specialties of the basic level categories by naming things

A
  1. name objects at this level and either gain object info or lose object info
  2. global level: Lose a lot of specific info
    Basic level: balances info
    specific level: gain a lot of info
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11
Q

How can Knowledge affect categorization

A

If you’re very knowledgeable on a subject you might categorize things differently more specifically or less

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12
Q

discrimation

A

behavioral bias that dis/advantages people based on group membership

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13
Q

intra-group similarity

A

the belief that individuals within a group are more similar than they actually are.

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14
Q

Semantic Networks

A

Made of nodes and links
node: representation of a category or concept
link: representation of relationship between categories/concepts
- indicates how these are connected, not just whether they’re connected.

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15
Q

explain the lexical decision task

A

Their task is to indicate as quickly as possible whether each entry is a word or a nonword. For example, the correct response for bloog would be “no” and for bloat would be “yes.”

Concepts that receive activation are primed & more easily accessed

             measured Distance between concepts predicts how long it will take to retrieve info
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16
Q

what are the criticisms of collins and quillions model

A

theory couldn’t explain the typicality effect, (reaction times for statements about an object are faster for more typical members of a category than for less typical members)

Thus, the statement “A canary is a bird” is verified more quickly than “An ostrich is a bird,” but the model predicts equally fast reaction times because “canary” and “ostrich” are both one node away from “bird.”

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17
Q

connectionist model

A

Model of organization made up of layers of units and weights

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18
Q

what is the connectionist model made up of

A

Unit – like a neuron; processes incoming info
Input unit – activated by the perception
Hidden unit – processing
Output unit – release knowledge
Weight – represents how likely it is to activate the next unit

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19
Q

How are concepts represented in a connectionist model

A
  1. untrained network tries to respond to the stimulus
  2. correct response is provided to the network
  3. back propagation - error transmitted backward to indicate certain signals shouldn’t be sent
  4. weights are modified to match the correct response`.
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20
Q

what are the 4 proposals about how concepts are represented in the brain

A
  1. The sensory-functional Hypothesis
  2. the Multiple-factor approach
  3. the semantic category approach
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21
Q

The sensory-functional Hypothesis

A

our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes functions.

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22
Q

The multiple-Factor approach

A

Seeking to describe how concepts are represented in the brain by searching for multiple factors that determine how concepts are divided up within a category.

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23
Q

The Semantic Category Approach

A

An approach to describing how semantic information is represented in the brain that proposes that there are specific neural circuits for some specific categories.

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24
Q

conceptual peg hypothesis:

A

concrete nouns create images that other words can hang on to, which enhances memory for these words. like truck or tree vs truth or justice

used a paired-associate learning technique.

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25
Q

mental chronometry

A

Determining the amount of time needed to carry out a cognitive task.

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26
Q

paired-associate learning experiment

A
  1. participants are presented with pairs of words, like boat–hat or car–house, during a study period.
  2. They are then presented, during the test period, with the first word from each pair.
  3. Their task is to recall the word that was paired with it during the study period.
  4. if they were presented with the word boat, the correct response would be hat.
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27
Q

Spatial representations

A

A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space.

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28
Q

evidence that images are spatial like perception

A

Size in the visual field. Just as you would have to walk forward in real life, in order to get more details you must move closer in your mental imagery

29
Q

Imagery Neurons

A

Neurons in the human brain studied by Kreiman, which fire in the same way when a person sees a picture of an object and when a person creates a visual image of the object.

30
Q

which study using brain imaging resulted in the conclusion that Both imagery and perception result in topographically organized rain activation

A

activity in the striate cortex increased both when a person observed presentations of actual visual stimuli and when the person was imaging the stimulus

31
Q

what was the finding of a transcranial magnetic stimulation to the visual cortex while participants were carrying out either a perception task or imagery task

A

The results indicated that stimulation caused participants to respond more slowly and that this slowing effect occurred both for perception and for imagery.

concluded that brain activity in the visual cortex plays a casual role in both perception and imagery

32
Q

What were the findings with Patient M.G.S that supported the idea that the visual vortex is also important for imagery

A

the patient was about to have the right part of her occipital lobe removed. tested before and after, they found that after they had the occipital lobe removed the distance increased to 35 feet. removing part of her visual cortex reduced the size of her field of view, so the horse filled up the field when she was farther away.

removing part of the visual cortex decreases image size.

33
Q

how does the study of the man who had unilateral neglect support the idea that problems with perceiving are accompanied by problems with imagery

A

Because he had unilateral neglect, he ignored objects in the left half of his visual field.

when we had him imagine certain objects and places in a plaza, he had trouble naming and perceiving things on the left side of his mental image.

34
Q

what do the results from C.K ‘s experiment with his visual agnosia show

A

C.K had Visual Agnosia, the inability to visually recognize objects. despite this C.K was able to draw objects from memory (a task that depends on imagery). when shown his drawing after time had passed, he wasn’t able to recognize his own drawings.

This apparent paradox highlights the difficulty in interpreting neuropsychological results.

35
Q

Method of loci

A

A method for remembering things in which the things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout.

36
Q

Method of loci

A

A method for remembering things in which the things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout.

37
Q

mnemonic peg system

A

A method for remembering things in which the things to be remembered are associated with concrete words.

38
Q

How do we know some people use imagery to solve problems and some don’t

A

when people were tested on 1. spatial imagery and 2. object imagery the ones that did well on the spatial imagery did badly on object imagery and vice versa

along with more evidence distinguishing between spatial and object imagers
- Spatial imagers did better in a mental rotation task, and object imagers did better on a degraded pictures task,

39
Q

hierarchical nature of language

A

The idea that language consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. For example, words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn can create sentences, which themselves can become components of a story.

40
Q

rule-based nature of language:

A

The idea that there are rules in a language that specify the permissible ways for arranging words and phrases.

41
Q

what 5 statements prove the universal need to communicate with language

A
  1. when deaf children find themselves in an environment where nobody speaks or uses sign language, they invent a sign language themselves
  2. all humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow complex rules, even though they are usually not aware of these rules
  3. language is universal across cultures
  4. language development is similar across culture
  5. all languages are unique but the same
42
Q

what are psycholinguistics main concerns

A

Comprehension
Representation
Speech production
Acquisition

43
Q

word frequency effect

A

The phenomenon of faster reading time for high-frequency words than for low-frequency words.

44
Q

Lexical priming

A

when a word can have more than one meaning

45
Q

Biased dominance

A

words such as tin in which on meaning occurs more often than the other meaning

46
Q

Balanced dominance

A

words such as cast, in which one meaning and the other meaning are equally likely

47
Q

The Garden Path Model of Parsing

A

A model of parsing that emphasizes syntactic principles as a major determinant of parsing.

Leading someone astray when reading a sentence, having to go back and reconfigure the meaning of the sentence structuring.

48
Q

The Given–New Contract

A

states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of information. Given information and new information. Context and tea

49
Q

Common ground

A

A task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this information involves reference—identifying something by naming or describing it.

50
Q

The Constraint-Based Approach to Parsing

A

An approach to parsing that proposes that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing.

51
Q

what does restructuring mean in terms of problem solving

A

the process of changing a problem’s representation.

According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving

52
Q

Insight

A

sudden realization of problems solution

53
Q

Functional fixedness

A

an effect that occurs when the ideas of a person. has about an object’s function inhibits the person’s ability to use the object for a different function.

54
Q

explain the information processing approach to problem-solving

A
  1. define the problem space
    - given info
    - operator
    - goal state
  2. means-end-analysis: calculate difference between initial and goal
    - subgoals- intermediate states closer to the goal
  3. work through subgoal and solve problem
55
Q

Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems

A

i. Experts Possess More Knowledge About Their Fields
ii. Experts’ Knowledge Is Organized Differently Than Novices’
iii. Experts Spend More Time Analyzing Problems

56
Q

Group brainstorming

A

when people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind without censorship

57
Q

practical creativity

A

Creativity that solves problems analogically

58
Q

Divergent thinking

A

thinking that is opened, involving a large number of solutions

59
Q

Method: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

A

A procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to battery-powered devices that deliver direct current, are placed on a person’s head.

60
Q

things creative people do differently

A
  1. daydream
  2. solitude
  3. minfulness
61
Q

expected utility theory

A

an economic approach that assumes that people will react rationally

62
Q

bounded (ecological) rationality

A

People try to make rational decisions, but there are limitations that prevent rational decisions

63
Q

error management theory

A

decisions that are made under uncertainty, turns into evolved biases to
- reduce costs
- maximize benefits

64
Q

2 types of reasoning

A
  1. inductive reasoning
  2. deductive reasonning
65
Q

inductive reasoning

A
  • drawing conclusions based on observation and evidence
  • specific cases to broad principles
  • given the evidence, figure out how the world works
66
Q

deductive problems

A
  • drawing conclusions based on logical steps
  • broad principle and applying to specific cases
  • given the rules, what conclusions can logically make sense
67
Q

heuristic

A

rule of thumb

68
Q

availability heuristic

A

heuristic to choose what is easily available to your mind

loosely based on memory and knowledge cognition

final exams (3 decks)

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