Cog Psy Exam #2 (2/14/24) Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
sensory memory: buffer system
A
where all the sensory info is stored for a brief period of time, until we opt to process it
2
Q
sensory memory: info state
A
held in a raw, unprocessed, uncategorized format
3
Q
iconic memory
A
visual
4
Q
visual persistence
A
the apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration
ex. rubber pen magic trick, or filmstrips
5
Q
Sperling - projector experiment
A
- flash set of letters on screen quickly and ask how much ppl remember seeing
- makes them wait to see the duration
- whole report: writing everything you see, report 4-5 items of 12
- partial report: focusing on a row, report 3-4 of 4 in a row
6
Q
Sperling - projector experiment results
A
immediate - partial report > whole report
delay = partial report info is lost quickly, after 1 sec accuracy is the same as whole report and drops to 1-2 out of a row
7
Q
icon capacity
A
brief, large capacity for sensory stimuli of a visual nature
8
Q
Sperling - decay
A
mechanism by which info is lost from iconic memory
remains in iconic memory approx. 1 sec
9
Q
Averbach & Coriell - interference, letter line/circle study
A
- experiment 1: single row of letters and showed a bar above the letter the participants need to remember
- letter recall decreased with delay - experiment 2: row of letters but used a circle around the letter, partially covering it
- people were worse at this experiment than ex. 1
- letter recall was poor even with no delay
10
Q
interference - backward masking
A
when a later visual stimulus interferes with perception of an earlier one
11
Q
characteristics of iconic memory
A
- immediate store of visual info
- capacity: large but hard to measure
- duration: approx. 0.5-1 sec
12
Q
types of sensory memory
A
partial report technique:
- physical features (round letters)
- location (which row)
- color
- semantic (report letters, ignore #s)
pre-categorical: little or no processing at semantic level
13
Q
role of visual sensory memory: perception of motion
A
dynamically updating ensory info to see motion consistently
14
Q
role of visual sensory memory: movies
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being able to see movies as constant motion
15
Q
role of visual sensory memory: saccadic suppression
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constantly moving the eyes
16
Q
echoic memory
A
auditory
17
Q
echoic memory def
A
maintenance of a representation of auditory stimuli for a brief time
18
Q
Darwin et al. three-eared person procedure
A
- people wearing headphones with “3 channels” - 1 in each ear and then one that sounds like its from in front or behind you
- whole report: ask then to recall everything they heard
- partial report: recall one of the channels
- info in the echo is held longer than the icon - 2-4 sec.
19
Q
characteristics of the echo
A
- immediate store of auditory info
- capacity: large but hard to measure
- duration approx. 2-4 sec
20
Q
short-term memory def
A
- info that comes into the environment is available for sensory memory and some things draw attention which becomes short-term memory
- current processing
- limited amount of info kept in an active state
21
Q
short-term memory - recall
A
maintaining info in short-term memory
if rehearsed enough, short-term memory can become long-term
22
Q
characteristics of short-term memory
A
- capacity: unclear, but people have the same capacity they just use it differently
- duration: quick
23
Q
how do we lose info from short term
A
interaction between decay and interference
24
Q
representations of STM
A
acoustically + semantically
25
STM as a limited capacity resource system
- George Miller's magic number
- 7 +/- 2
- people can hold 7 +/-2 items in short-term memory
- but what is an item, is it each individual letter or could it be groups
26
STM as a limited capacity resource system: chunks
- well-learned sequence or pattern of parts with a pre-existing representation in long-term memory
- ex. knowing what btw stands for
- used to sort or organize info
- there are individual differences in chunking strategies but not in raw capacity
- experts do not have larger STM capacities, they just have more effective chunking strategies
27
Chase & Simon: chess experts vs novices
- look at a chess board layout of a game and then take it away
- ask them to recreate the board
28
Chase & Simon: chess results
when it was a legal correct array, masters were able to put all the pieces in the right place
- but when presented with a random array, masters and beginners were equally bad
29
Peterson & Peterson: losing info from STM - 3 letters and counting
- hear a set of 3 letters: C H J
- then hear 3 numbers: 8 3 1
- task is to count backwards by 3 from 831
- final task is to recall the 3 letters
30
Peterson & Peterson: losing info from STM results
forgetting curve
- the amount of letters recalled decreases as the time delay increases
- it doesn't take long for people to forget
- the more letters people are asked to recall, the faster they forget
31
Waugh & Norman: mechanisms for loss - recalling a number
- present a list of numbers
- ask people to think about the last number they heard and when it was said earlier in the sequence, and what number came after it
- 2345678349064
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Waugh & Norman: mechanisms for loss - interference
- number of items interfering between the probe and target
- sometimes the last time it was said was closer to the end sometimes farther
- how many numbers interfere with the task
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Waugh & Norman: mechanisms for loss - decay
- rate at which each digit was presented
- sometimes it will be said 4 digits per sec and sometimes 1 digit per sec
34
Waugh & Norman: mechanisms for loss - results
- the more interfering numbers the worse the recall
- decay is not affected until there are 5 or more items interfering
- when there is a lot of interference, decay is more likely
35
Wicklegreen study: evidence that STM is semantic
- look at set of letters and #s and then try to repeat them
- particiapants often confused letters that sounded alike
- ex. D, P, G or F, S, X
- still happened even when they saw the stimuli rather than hearing them
- people who are deaf do not regulalry show STM challenges
- therefore STM is not simply acoustic
36
Wickens study - fruit and counting study
- participants heard a list of objects
- then heard 3 digits and were asked to count backwards by 3
- then asked to recall the list of objects
- if words are all fruits: as people keep going and the words are in the same semantic category they get worse
37
Wickens study: proactive interference
info learned earlier interferes with info you are currently trying to learn
38
Wickens study: release from proactive interference
if semantic category is switched after a while then people get good at recall again
39
STM vs working memory
STM
- how much stuff you put in, how you use it
- ex. remembering a phone number, fruit recall task etc
working memory
- what are you doing with the info
- emphasis on processing
- ex. solving math problem in your head
40
working memory components: central executive
- allocation of attention/resources
- initiating retrieval and decision processes
- integrating info
- transfer info to LTM via rehearsal
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working memory components: phonological loop
- rehearsal of verbal info
- auditory processing
42
working memory components: visuo-spatial sketch pad
route planning
43
WM resource allocation chess task
- study chessboard
- complete an intervening task: designed to cause interference in 1 of the 3 working memory subsystems
- final task to reproduce the chessboard
- what does this required from the working memory subsystems
44
WM resource allocation chess task - 3 groups
group 1
- verbally count backwards - phonological loop
group 2
- tap keys in a predetermined pattern - visuospatial sketchpad
group 3
- produce random list of letter, one per sec - central executive
45
WM resource allocation chess task - results
- group 2 (VSKP) and group 3 (central exec.) showed decrements in chessboard recall
- group 1 (phonological) showed no decrement
46
visuospatial sketchpad asterisk task
- looking at big block letter and asked to imagine an asterisk moving around it
- when people were verbally saying where it was going it took 11.3 secs but when pointing it took 28.2 sec
47
working memory capacity limitations
- performance suffers when mode of responding involves the same working memory subsystem
- but if you super overload, even a different system performance will suffer
48
Daneman & Carpenter - reading span task
- asked to recall the last word in a sentence
- increase # of sentences until person can no longer recall the words
- average 3-7 sentences
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Daneman & Carpenter - reading span task: high working capacity
- able to keep multiple meanings for ambiguous words (like bank) in their mind at the same time but that means they initially process slower
50
Daneman & Carpenter - reading span task: low memory capacity
- settle on one def for ambiguous words (like bank) so if they are wrong they have to go back and reprocess, but initial processing is faster than higher capacity people
51
long-term memory
- extended storage of information
52
studying LTM: recall types
- free recall: everything you can remember about a specific topic
- serial recall: everything in the order it was presented in
- cued recall: given a cue to help you recall something
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studying LTM: recognition
- study phase: remember this face
- test phase: did you see any of these faces earlier
- sometimes even if we can't recall something we can recognize it
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characteristics of LTM
- unlimited capacity
- permanent store
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physiological evidence of LTM: ECT
- electroconvulsive therapy
- used for people with severe depression
- if you ask people what happened right before the shock they can't tell you
- STM disappears but LTM is preserved
56
physiological evidence of LTM: head trauma
- sometimes people don't remember right before the accident but they can remember things before that
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physiological evidence of LTM: Korsakoff's syndrome
- severe alcoholism that causes memory dysfunction bc they are not getting nutrients from food
- STM doesn't work but LTM still functions
58
explicit vs implicit performance
explicit: ask people to remember things
implicit: ask people for responses that are influenced by past events (cube shock task)
59
physiological evidence of LTM: HM
- unable to perform explicit tasks and encoding them into LTM
- but he was able to encode implicit tasks after a long time
60
physiological evidence of LTM: serial position effect
- asking people to memorize words in the order they are given
- primacy effect: remembers the first ones more
- recency effect: remembering the last words you heard bc they are the most recent
- words in the middle are forgotten the most
61
getting info from STM into LTM: control process
strategies a person uses to facilitate knowledge acquisition: learning
- verbal rehearsal: rote memorization
- coding: making info meaningful
- visual imagery
- mnemonic devices
- distinctiveness effects
62
LTM types
- episodic memory: specific episode of your life
- declarative memory: facts
- procedural memory: how to do things
63
LTM processes
- encoding: getting info in
- the deeper you process something the more durable the memory trace is, the easier it is to remember
- storage: holding it
- retrieval: getting it out
64
levels of processing: Craik & Lockhart
- associated with encoding, impacted schools
- deeper you process something, more likely you are to encode it into LTM
65
levels of processing: Craik & Lockhart memory and semantic study
- lots of pairs of words and then participants had to do something with the words
- they didn't know it was a memory test
- each group was asked to look at different things
(capital letters, rhyme, meanings etc)
66
levels of processing: Craik & Lockhart study results
- thinking about what something looks like isn't deep processing, meaning is
- hierarchy or remembering from least to most: physical, acoustic, semantic, self-reference
67
priming
- if i give you some info, i'm preparing you to respond later
68
network models of memory
- memory is organize by ideas, some are more closely related than others
- connections between related concepts in your mind
- represented in nodes
- connections between nodes are due to various characteristics (categorization, property features etc.
69
retrieval
- accessing info from memory
- depends on encoding + storage
- sometimes need cues to retrieve
70
features of retrieval
- spread of activation: when I say sky, other areas around that node get activated (like blue)
- directed search
- tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: when retrieval fails all the nodes around activate, but the node you want doesn't
71
encoding ---> retireving
- the way you encode info influences how you should try to retrieve it (diff from levels of processing)
- effectiveness of retrieval depends on how well it relates to the initial encoding of the item
72
Light & Carter-Sobell: strawberry-jam study
- cue at test: no cue vs related semantic cue vs strawberry
- people are better if they get a cue for the first word
- those distractions, contexts, features, and other elements of our experience can serve as retrieval cues
73
strategies for test studying
- we recall info better when it's available in the same context
- better at retrieving info if we are in the same experiential context
- cannot attend 100% to everything
74
Godden & Baddeley environment study
better recalling things in the same environment you studied them
75
Bower, Giligan and Moterio: mood and memory
if you are happy at encoding you wanted to be happy at retrieval and vice versa
76
Bond & Omar: next-in-line effect
- after people give a pres, ask them to remember things from the ones before them
- usually they can't because of high arousal focusing on their own
77
Peters 1998: hospital vaccination study
- when to hospital where ppl were being vaccinated
- participants were good at recognizing researchers but not the nurse from photos after appointment
78
Peters 1998: hospital vaccination study results
- claimed nurse is doing something anxiety-provoking that draws attention away from their face
- arousal and emotion can influence memory encoding and retrieval
- incredible contemporary interest in retrieval practice
79
what happens in LTM when forgetting occurs
- forgotten something, but remember it later
- suddenly remember something you hadn't thought about for years
- remember the features of things but not all of them
- can't recognize something but can easily relearn it
80
Ebbinghaus: early scientific study of memory
- forgetting in LTM
- memorized nonsense syllables until he could recite them perfectly
- once perfected, he measured the rates of info loss
- forgetting curve - precipitous drop off at the beginning but then very little memory loss from the next several weeks
- stuff that is retained sticks around
81
types of interference: proactive interference
- early info you already learned/ encoded makes it hard to learn new info
82
types of interference: retroactive interference
- later learning reduces ability to retrieve earlier info
83
fan effects
more network connection you have to a particular node interfere
84
autobiographical memory: def
- very similar to episodic memory
- things that you have experienced and have been impactful on your life
85
autobiographical memory: types
- event specific: arrival at college
- general event: orientation week
- lifetime: college experience
86
autobiographical memory: reminiscence bump
- increases in memory for events that are meaningful
87
autobiographical memory: reminiscence bump - Schrauf & Rubin
- 55 yr olds memory for events US citizens: recollected a lot of events in their 20s and less in middle age
- Us immigrants who came in 20s vs 30s:
-20s = bump right before age 20
- 30s = bump later around 34-35
88
autobiographical memory: reminiscence bump - hypotheses
life-narrative hypothesis: personal identify is determined in those years (early adulthood)
cognitive hypothesis: encoding is stronger in periods of rapid change vs stability
89
ways to study memory over the lifespan
brain damage patients
life narratives
longitudinal studies
90
memory over the lifespan: longitudinal study - Bahrick et al.
- memory for high school classmates names and faces
- 400 ppl, age 17-64
- recall: picture cuing, free recall
- recognition or matching
results:
- recall: further away from high school the fewer names ppl can freely recall even with picture cuing
- recognition: very good, even over long periods of time
91
flashbulb memories: def
- culturally relevant life events not specific to you are a person
- very rich, detailed memories that are encoded when something emotionally salient happens
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flashbulb memories: features
- importance & distinctiveness of events
- consequentially & surprise
- proximity & personal involvement
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flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - Brown and Kulick
emotionally charged stimuli with high consequentiality causes people to remember them better than mundane stimuli
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flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - Hamann et al. amygdala
emotionally charged images led to higher amygdala activation and better memory
95
flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - Cahill et al. Patient BP
patient BP had amygdala damage, he did not show enhancement for emotional events
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flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - Neisser
- flashbulb memory operates the same as normal memory, not special
- characterized by:
- frequent narrative rehearsal
- inaccuracies, even decay
- plausible distortions over time
97
flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - Talarico & Rubin 9/11 study
- on 9/12 asked people about memories for 9/11 and for an ordinary event from 9/10
- 3 groups given follow-up questionnaire: a week, 42 days and 224 days later
98
flashbulb memories: mechanism studies - 9/11 study results
- with passage of time consistent memory decreased for both flashbulb and mundane memories
- big differences in beliefs about consistency about accuracy and vividness
- higher for flashbulb than everyday
99
photographic or eidetic memory
- very rare
- usually due to lots of practice
100
false memory: def
- prior knowledge guides selection, interpretation and integration
- reconstruct what probably happened, rather than simply retrieving exact memories
101
false memory: schema
- ex. understanding how a car works
- relying on schema sometimes leads to false info because it might not follow the way you think about it
102
false memory: script
- like going to a restaurant, knowing the process
- time-bound schema
103
false memory: Bartlett's war of the ghosts
- present white UK students with a story about indigenous people hunting
- elements of the story changed based on their existing schemas
104
false memory: Bransford & Johnson's laundry description
- presenting people with a paragraph about doing laundry without telling them what its about
- 2.8 units recalled and rates text as nonsense
- with a title
- 5.8 idea units remembered, understand te text
105
false memory: Brewer & Treyens - office description
- omit: picnic basket because it doesn't fit schema
- commission: might falsely describe computer because you expect there to be one
106
why aren't memories reproductive
- storage and retrieval costs
- value efficiency, but compromise accuracy
- interpretation
- limited time span for relevance or use
107
memory for gist - Nickerson and Adams
- don't need to know all the details
- ex. Apple logo, penny design
108
eye-witness testimony: Loftus & Palmer pt. 1
- participants viewed short movie of an accident then filled out questionnaire
- question: how fast were the vehicles going when they...
- smashed?
- collided?
- bumped?
- hit?
- contacted?
- speed estimates differed depending on what verb they were given
109
eye-witness testimony: Loftus & Palmer pt. 2
- two weeks after seeing film
- did you see broken glass?
- people say yes/no depending on their verb + speed estimate from previous part
question phrasing influences responses
110
mental storehouse vs active processing
- intake of memory
- activating using
111
von Wright - semantic vs physical
- showed semantics (letters vs numbers)
- physical like color and location
- found that people were better at physical than semantic
- little to no semantic processing
112
ecological validity
thinking about how much a lab task resembles real life
113
maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal
- maintenance: shallow processing
- elaborative: leads to deeper processing
