Cognition 21081 Flashcards

Question

What is a schema?

Answer 1

- A structured representation of knowledge about the world, events, people or actions - Can be used to make sense of new material, to store and later recall on them - Are influenced/determined by social and cultural factors

Answer 2

- Asked the question: "what actions do you expect to take place in a restaurant" - 73% of respondents reported common events such as 'looking at the menu' or eating - 48% also included culturally alternative actions such as "discuss the menu" or "leave a tip". - Suggests that culture influences schemas

Answer 3

- People were told Native American folk tales who weren't familiar with them. - People committed many errors and distortions when they were asked to recall these - In their recalls, they made the story more coherent and omitted details - These **distortions were more consistent with their own semantic knowledge** - **Shows that schemas affect the way we process new information**

Answer 4

- Participants read a passage, in the absense of a title. - They recalled around 2.8 different units - Those who were supplied with a title recalled 5.8 different units RESULTS: - Previous schematic knowledge, prompted by the title, is beneficial for later recall as it helps comprehension of the passage and organisation of its elements

Answer 5

METHOD: - Presented a story about a dictator that was either unknown 'Gerald Martin' or known 'Adolf Hitler'. - Participants were then asked sentences- some had been in the story and some hadn't - They were asked to recall if it had been mentioned in the story RESULTS: - Short delay (5mins)- no difference between the groups - Long delay (1week)- Participant who read about Hitler were more likely to incorrectly agree with the test sentence "He hated the Jews...". (This wasn't in the story, but everyone knows Hitler didn't rate jews). CONCLUSION: - Schematic knowledge may affect memory especially at longer intervals

Answer 6

METHOD: - Presented Participants with ambiguous figures - Separated the participants into 2 groups where different labels were given to the ambiguous figure RESULTS: - When asked to recreate the symbols from memory, the picture they submitted was more consistent with the label that was attached to the figure rather than the ambiguous figure itself CONCLUSION: - Schemas influenced the drawing reproduction way more than the stimulus presented.

Answer 7

METHODS: - Participants were presented with a group of abstract images. - Some participants were given an imaginary story assigned to the images. - Some only given the image. RESULTS: - Recall was better for those that had a story paired with the image. - The meaning therefore enhanced the memory and encoding

Answer 8

METHODS: - Presented with a list of words - Asked to remember the list - Then asked to recall the list RESULTS: - Related words within the list tended to be recalled as a cluster - P's organised the words based on their schemas, ignoring the uninformative sequence, instead using meaning to infer the memory of the items

Answer 9

When Participants are given the opportunity to organise information in a meaningful way, memory performance is improved. Meaning increases our ability to remember. (In comparison to no meaning)

Answer 10

More imageable words (e.g. concrete nouns) are more memorable than abstract concepts.

Answer 11

Paivio's dual-coding hypothesis. Concrete nouns can be encoded through 2 routes: - Visual appearance - Verbal meaning Abstract concepts can be encoded through 1 route: - Verbal meaning - Shows that the more encoding routes we have, the higher the chance of successful recall

Answer 12

- There are multiple dimensions that we take into account when it comes to memory and how we remember. - They are organised in a hierarchy based on the power they hold to enhance recall: - Visual (least powerful) - Phonological/ (acoustic) - Semantic (most powerful) (power in terms of how well they are encoded into LTM)

Answer 13

METHOD: Words were studied and participants were asked to make 3 judgements (via yes/no answers): - Visual processing ("is TABLE in upper case?") - Phonological ("does DOG rhyme with LOG?') - Semantic (""does FIELD fit in the sentence: 'The horse lived in a _") - Then presented with words and asked whether it had previously been studied (Y/N) RESULTS: - There was a linear increase in recall based on the different dimensions - deeper processing led to better recognition.

Answer 14

- Replicated in numerous studies - Affects both recognition and recall (was this word shown to you earlier/recall words shown earlier) - Increases memory in incidental memory tests (not told about incoming test).

Answer 15

- Difficult to define and measure 'deeper processing'. - Levels of processing (features) are not processed in a serial order but occur simultaneously when processing new information. - Deeper is not always more memorable

Answer 16

Transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 17

Memory retrieval is best when the cues available at testing are similar to those available at encoding. STUDY: - Participants were shown pictures of objects to study. - Then tested using the same pictures or just the words that the picture is of. RESULTS: - Memory is better if format is the same at encoding as at testing.

Answer 18

METHOD: - Participants were asked to make phonological or semantic judgements about words. - They were not told that they would be tested later (incidental learning). Test: - Standard recognition test for the encoded words. - Rhyming recognition test for the encoded words (was there a word that rhymed with 'bar'? RESULTS: - Standard recognition test: higher memory for semantic encoding (same results as LOP). - Rhyming recognition test: phonological led to better performance. CONCLUSION: - Learning more efficient when tested the same was as learnt.

Answer 19

Deeper coding allows elaborate rehearsal to take effect and interact with better encoding. It's been found that elaborate rehearsal (linking the object to other material) enhances delayed long-term learning more than maintenance rehearsal (repeating it mentally to encode it) does.

Answer 20

Recall is better when words are organised than when presented in a scrambled order.

Answer 21

Memory is benefitted by subjective organisation: - Chunking together separate words for recall, even if those word weren't encoded together enhances recall. Items are often chunked together if they: - are linked to a common associate (ball, boot, goal - linked to football) - come from the same semantic category (e.g. profession) - form a logical hierarchical structure or matrix.

Answer 22

METHOD: - Deck of cards with a word on each - 4 different groups asked to do one of the following: 1) learn the words. 2) Sort the cards by meaning. 3) Sort the card by meaning and knowing they would be tested. 4) Arrange the words into columns. RESULTS: - Sorting by meaning with or without knowledge of being tested later produced similar recall - Worse recall in the 4th group CONCLUSIONS: - Attention to the material and organising them meaningfully is more important. - Intention has minimal effect, while level of processing matters more.

Answer 23

Creating connections (via different levels of processing: imagery, meaning) Organisation (recall by groups, presentation in organised way) LOP/TAP (deeper processing, similar encoding - retrieval procedures) Active creation (generate, test)

Answer 24

- Semantic memory is organised into a series of hierarchical networks, organised by nodes. - Major concepts are represented as nodes. - Properties/features are associated with each concept. Look at week 3 powerpoint - it's organised as a flowchart that get's more specific as you work down nodes (e.g. Animal -> Bird -> Canary).

Answer 25

More general properties are stored higher up in the hierarchical network in order to minimise redundancy, as you get more specific, so do the properties. This avoids having repetitive features: - Subordinate categories do not need to repeat and redefine what is higher up in the chain. If confused, look at week 3 PowerPoint for a great image that explains this

Answer 26

METHODS: - State a series of sentences relating to an object e.g. 'a canary can sing' and a 'canary has skin'. - Participants asked to respond as quickly as possible whether the statement was true or false. RESULTS: - Reaction time increased as distance from the specific 'canary' node increased. ('It is yellow' reacted to quicker than 'It has skin') CONCLUSIONS: - Unless information is directly linked/stored with a concept in semantic memory, we infer the answer from properties of higher nodes. -Therefore, making more inferences slows verification.

Answer 27

Familiarity: - The experiences from the world that we have knowledge about before we do the task impacts our ability in said task. - 'A canary has skin' is not a familiar sentence (who tf asks this?) - When controlled reduces the hierarchical distance effect. Typicality: - How typical the concepts are for the subordinate category? - Verification is faster for more representative member categories independent of hierarchical/semantic distance. E.g., (a penguin is a bird, a canary is a bird).

Answer 28

Semantic memory is organised by semantic relatedness/distance. The length of links between concepts indicates the degree of semantic relatedness. Activity at one node causes activation at other nodes via links. Spreading activation decreases as it gets further away from the original point of activation.

Answer 29

When presenting one stimulus that is semantically related makes subsequent processing more efficient. Reaction time is faster for similar prime words than dissimilar ones: - The Prime word when similar to the target word, leads to more activation spread though one short link. - The prime word, when dissimilar to the target word, leads to less activation spread through lengthier link via extra node. CONCLUSION: - Semantic links and distance determine the strength and speed of activation spread from one concept to the other

Answer 30

METHODS: - Participants study list of related words - some which have an underlying common concept (that is not presented). - Then, presented with the list of words, containing some new words as well as the underlying concept word. RESULTS: - When tested, participants are more likely to accept the concept word as a studied word than the unrelated words because the activation is spread from the presented words to the related concept word.

Answer 31

The spreading activation model is more flexible than the hierarchical network model. Pros of flexibility: - The spreading activation model can account for more empirical findings. Cons of flexibility: - The flexibility also reduces the specificity of the model's predictions - More difficult to test

Answer 32

Concepts are processed in different settings and their processing is influenced by the current context/setting. Concepts incorporate perceptual properties (what are key features we can perceive about this concept?) and motor- or action- related properties (what actionable goals are related to this concept?). E.g. Activated aspects of 'bicycle' concept reflect current goals associated with a bicycle: - Do you want to buy a bike for your kid? - Do you look at a bike seat and think about the comfort of it?

Answer 33

*Does access to concepts involve motor systems?* - Brain areas activated by action words are adjacent to and partly overlapp with activations produces by corresponding movement - Words such as lick, pick, and kick activate parts of the motor cortex - Great overlap with areas activated when people make the relevent tongue, finger, and foot movements.

Answer 34

*Does the involvement of motor system facilitate access to concepts?* - Present a word type such as 'kick/sprint' the response is faster if related to that motion (such as moving a foot instead of hands) - Whereas, 'knead or sprint' would induce a slower response for foot movements and a faster one for hand. RESULTS: - Understanding of action verbs required activation of the motor areas used to carry out the named action. - Pre-activation of the concepts makes the action itself more efficient

Answer 35

- Processing of concepts depends on the situation and the perceptual and/or motor processes in a given task. Limitations - How variable are concepts across situations? - Concepts= stable core + context-dependent elements - Are these properites secondary - after concept meaning has been accessed?

Answer 36

Semantic memories are represented in the brain as whole objects. - Each object/concept has its own node or neuron - E.g. There is a special neuron representing your grandmother - Types of nodes are grouped together (e.g. all living things). Most evident suggests that this is not the case.

Answer 37

Different kinds of information about a given object are stored in separate brain regions (stored specifically and together). - E.g. Visual information is stored in one part of the brain, while the auditory linked with that object is stored in another. - This view is becoming increasingly popular.

Answer 38

A hybrid model of semantic memory Hub: - Modality-independent conceptual representations. - General properties of concepts are represented here, thought to be the anterior temporal lobe. Spokes: - Modality-specific brain areas. - Sensory and motor processing. - Represented in the cortical areas, depending on their domain.

Answer 39

METHOD: - Participants were presented with either tool functioning questions e.g. 'scissors are used for cutting'. Or tool manipulating questions e.g. 'Pliers are gripped by the handles'. - In both cases, asked to state whether they are true or not as quick as possible. RESULTS: - When tDCS (transcranial direct current stimulation) was applied to the IPL (inferior parietal lobe) region of the brain, tool manipulation task was enhanced. - When tDCS was applied to the ATL (anterior temporal lobe) region of the brain, there was increased performance in both tool function and tool manipulation.

Answer 40

- People with semantic dementia (ATL atrophy) have general semantic deficits e.g. naming objects, sorting objects into categories etc. - People with category-specific deficits have greater difficulty identifying/naming living than non-living objects but are able to name pictures of non-living things. - This highlights the fact that the hub and the spoke are dissociable. As the anterior temporal lobe is the general core that is affected and the individual cortical regions are category specific.

Answer 41

- Increasing evidence that concepts are organised in hub (core) and spokes (modality specific) Limitations - The role of anterior temporal lobe may be more complex. - Does familiarity with concepts affect their organisation in the hub? - How many 'spokes'? - How is information integrated between the spokes and the hub?

Answer 42

- A progression from one or more retrieval cues to a target trace through associative connections - The aim is to make the target available

Answer 43

The particular memory that we are searching for.

Answer 44

Bit of information about the target memory that guide the search.

Answer 45

Bonds that link together items in memory - they vary in strength.

Answer 46

The internal state of a memory, reflecting its level of excitement - it determines the accessibility of the item. - Increases when something related to the memory is encountered - Persists for some time.

Answer 47

The automatic transmission of energy from one memory to related items via associations, which is proportional to the strength of connections. - Strength of association may vary, depending on how well something is associated. Memories are more accessible when there is a stronger association.

Answer 48

The process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement of a memory. - Pattern completion is regarded as a hippocampal mechanism - A partial cue may reinstate other components of the pattern in order to form the whole event.

Answer 49

- Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval - Dividing attention task shows this as during retrieval there is a reduction of memory performance is the secondary task is related to the primary task and demands a lot of attention

Answer 50

1. attention to cues 2. relevance of cues 3. cue target strength 4. number of cues 5. target strength 6. retrieval stratergy 7. retrieval mode

Answer 51

- Asked participants to recall a list of words after a study situation where the words were learnt. - At the same time they were asked ot make judgements related to other items that were visually presented. - The items were presented in three forms: Words, pictures and numbers - Found that completing the secondary task resulted in reduced performance in the primary task (30-50%) - Performance loss was larger when the secondary task was presented as words.

Answer 52

- Retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target. - Encoding specificity principle suggests that retrieval of cues are most useful if they're present at encoding, encoded with the target and similar to the original cue available at encoding - Having the right cues enhances retrieval.

Answer 53

- Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association - Determined by the length of time and attention spent encoding the relationship - Encoding the cue and the target seperately is unhelpful.

Answer 54

- Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval - Dual coding/ cueing multiple routes to a target can provide a super-additive recall benefit - Elaborative encoding maximises the number of retrieval routes

Answer 55

- Participants were given different cues in order to access a memory. - When presented with the cue 'mythical being', there was a 14% success of retrieval of the target word 'ghost' - When presented with the cue 'Post', retrieval success was 19%. - However, when the two words were presented together, this increased the probability of reporting the target word to 97%

Answer 56

- Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve. - The targets start at a lower activation level and require a greater boost in activation to be retrieved. - Explains the word frequency effect on recall: more frequent target words start with higher activation level

Answer 57

Retrieval success is increased by: - The organisation of materials at encoding - Adopting efficient strategies of memory search - Adopting a new perspective/ strategy can facilitate recall of different objects previously forgotton

Answer 58

- Frame of mind allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide subsequent retrieval - Herron and Wilding found that having multiple episodic tasks in a row gradually improves performance - Episodic retrieval implicated different brain regions (prefrontal cortex) than semantic judgements - It takes time to fully adopt the retrieval mode

Answer 59

- **Ask people to recall particular experiences (engage explicit memory recovery)** - Require a contextual cue - Reveal impaired performance in amnesics - In many cases rely on hippocampus - Examples: - Free recall, cued recall, yes/no recognition, forced-choice recognition

Answer 60

- **Measure the unconsciuos influence of experience without asking the subject to recall the past** - Involves priming which is a recent experience with a stimulus.- improves performance - Reveal normal performance in amnetics - Examples: - Stem Completion, fragment completion, conceptual fluency

Answer 61

Conceptual fluency which is a type of implicit memory test as it is testing your understanding of what a bird is without giving you a direct prompt about a particular species, but just asks you to recite all the birds you know

Answer 62

- Specific conditions under which a stimulus was encoded - 4 types: - Spatio-temporal/ environmental, Mood, Physiological, Cognitive

Answer 63

-Taught divers word pairs in one of two contexts: Dry land or underwater. - Tested the memory of the participants by matching the pairs either in the same of different environment. - Those who studied on dry land and tested on dry land did the best as well as those who srudied underwater and were tested underwater.

Answer 64

- - Maximising environment influenced retrieval success. --> reinforces idea that context reinstates the original encoding environment and facillitates retrieval

Answer 65

- Participants studies either in a noisy or a quiet environment - They were then tested either in a noisy or quiet environment - Memory retrieval was better when the testing condition matched the study condition.

Answer 66

- Recall depends on the match between the participants' internal environment as encoding and retrieval - However state-dependency disappears under recognition tests.

Answer 67

- About the person/person match - Recall is dependent on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval

Answer 68

- About the person/ item match - It's easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matched the current mood of the person. - Depressed individuals are more likely to recall mostly unpleasant memories

Answer 69

- Developed from auditory perception where a ppts had to detect a tone (signal) presented against background noise and determine if it is easy or hard to detect, uses an outcome matrix to determine the ppts response with 'hit', 'false alarm', 'miss' and 'correct rejection'.

Answer 70

Ppts were asked whether they had encountered a stimulus before: They had to discriminate between old (studied) or new (non-studied distractors) stimuli - When presented an old word and claimed it wasold it was a 'hit' - When we presented an old word but the ppts claims that its new- 'miss' - When we present a new word but ppts claims it as old - 'false alarm' - When we present them with a new word and claim as new - 'correct rejection'

Answer 71

- PPts were presented with either pleasant or unpleasant situations by either playing happy or sad music - Or they presented happy events or negative events of everyday life. - The participants then studies some material - 2 Days later, they tested the ppts under the same mood as when they encoded the materials or the opposite mood - Free recall vastly improved when the mood states matched

Answer 72

- Retrieval is better if the same cognitive features/ tasks are involved - Ideas, thoughts and concepts that occupied our attention - Memory facilitated when cognitive context at encoding matches retrieval.

Answer 73

- Engaged bilingual ppts in a study where they were interviewed in either Russian or English - They were asked to recall events from a life period in which they would either be speaking Russian or English - Memories were easier to access when retrieval takes place in the same language mode as they were encountered.

Answer 74

- Retrieved memories are not entirely intact - We have to figure out some aspects of the recalled experience - There are inferential aspects to memory

Answer 75

- SDT is used to understand and explore recognition memory decisions - It is useful to understand how recognition decisions are taken and how to descriminate true memory from guesses.

Answer 76

- SDT cannot account for all recognition memory phenomena - Word frequency effect: Low frequency words are better recognised (although high frequency words are better recalled). - SDT incorrectly predicts low-frequenct words should be less familiar

Answer 77

- Based on two types of memory processes (Mandler) - Familiarity A sense of memory without being able to remember contextual information. Described by signal detection. Faster and more automatic - Recollection Retrieving contextual details about a stimulus- like cued recall. Slower and more attention demanding

Answer 78

- Participants decide whether they remembered the item being presented previously (recollect contextual details and a measure of recollection) or if they Know it was presented previously (seems familiar, measure of familiarity).

Answer 79

Forgetting without the intention to forget. Happens all the time. Information we used to know well but cannot remember.

Answer 80

Purposefully diminish access to memory (e.g. unwanted memories). Engaging in behaviours in which we choose to forget.

Answer 81

- Uncontrolled remembering - Feels as though the person relives the events they remember - Remembering is 'automatic', effortless, and not under conscious control - Cannot forget unpleasant memories - Memories can be distracting

Answer 82

A graph that shows the logarithmic relationship between forgetting and time - forgetting increases as time progresses BUT the rate of forgetting is different (memory starts high and tapers off in a 'death slide' shape) - Forgetting rapid initially. - Less additional forgetting at longer intervals

Answer 83

METHODS: - Collected 40 public events from many different decades. - 14000 participants completed an online study of recall and recognition for the 40 events. RESULTS - Recall: steep initial drop followed by slower forgetting rate - Recall for events dropped from 60% to 30% within a year - Recognition, however, for the same events was less effected. SIMILAR TO EBBINGHAUS' curve

Answer 84

METHODS: - 400 US high-school graduates were tested on recalling and recognising names of classmates after delays of up to 30 years. RESULTS: - Recognition of classmates' faces/ names remained intact - Match up names with faces also unimpaired - Recall a name when given a person's picture was extensively impaired. SUPPORT: - Rate of forgetting was similar to the forgetting curve as forgetting levels out after a period of 2 years and there is little forgetting after this - For people with good level of knowledge and poorer levels of knowledge, the pattern was the same

Answer 85

Availability - Is the item in the memory store? (memory trace could be lost) Accessibility - Is the item accessible for retrieval? (item could be stored but not accessible) Both may denote forgetting.

Answer 86

Make sure there is **better learning at the stage of encoding**. Repeated attempts to retrieve (testing/generation effect) builds up the resistance to forgetting.

Answer 87

METHODS - For 5 years, participants noted 2 events that happened during the day. Memory for... - Some events were tested many times. - Some events were tested few times. - Some events weren't tested at all. RESULTS: - Those that weren't tested at all were forgotten - If tested only once, there was reduced forgetting - There was a correlation between the amount of times tested and the better remembered the event was

Answer 88

May lead to memory distortions. Not all memories are equally vulnerable to forgetting at all points in their history - because of the forgetting curve!

Answer 89

All else equal, **older** memories are more durable and forgotten less rapidly than newer memories. - New memories are initially more vulnerable to disruption/ distortion until they are **consolidated**

Answer 90

The process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. Stabilises the memory.

Answer 91

The process by which a consolidated memory restabilises again after being reactivated by reminders. (during reconsolidation a memory is vulnerable to disruption).

Answer 92

Presentation event/encoding occurs. The consolidation period: - Active in our mind, during this period the **memory is vulnerable to disruption**. Consolidated memory: - Not active, yet it has been stabilised. Cue/ Reminder event: - you're reminded of it (great terminology here). Reconsolidation: - A cue in the environment activates a memory, makes the memory more vulnerable to disruption, so has to be consolidated again - also allows for updates to the memory. Reconsolidated memory!!!

Answer 93

1. Trace decay- memories weaken due to passage of time. 2. Context shifts- different cues are available now than the ones available at encoding. 3. Interference - similar memories hinder retrieval (information overlay).

Answer 94

Memories gradually weaken because of the passage of time. - Priming and familiarity especially prone to decay How does decay affect memories? - A memory's activations fade, but the memory itself is intact (inaccessible) *OR* The memory itself and its elements (associations) degrade along with its activity level.

Answer 95

Synaptic connections degrade and neurons die as time goes by - memories then may die or fade in the same way Replacement of lost memory: - Neurogenesis or the growth of new neurons (especially in the hippocampus) means that the structure is remodelled and its connections are gradually modified - This is good for new learning- generation of new associations but bad for older memories retained in the hippocampus.

Answer 96

Behaviourally its difficult to prove trace decay. Two important factors: - Rehearsal - Interference from new experiences cannot be controlled when attributing forgetting to decay Question still remaining: - Are memories unavailable or simply inaccessible?

Answer 97

It's a correlate of time - perhaps time isn't causing forgetting but this is correlated with it: Similarity between encoding and retrieval context may explain forgetting. - Incidental context differs more between retrieval and encoding over time and is less similar to remote past than more recent past.

Answer 98

- Similar traces/memories impede retrieval and it is difficult to discriminate between them. - Similar memories accumulate over time Occurs whenever the cue that can be used to access memory becomes associated with other memories

Answer 99

Memories associated to a shared cue automatically impede retrieval when the cue is presented as a cue activates all associates. - The activated associates compete for access to consciousness and the competitors hinder access to target memory. - Interference occurs due to the negative effect of having competitors and it increases with the number of competitors a target memory has.

Answer 100

Retroactive - Introducing a new memory impairs the recall of a first memory. - might help remember: (Games **become** retro as new games come out) Proactive interference - The tendency of older memories to interfere with retrieval of recent experience and knowledge (more severe for recall).

Answer 101

METHODS: - Rugby players were asked to recall names of teams they had played earlier during the season. - Some players missed certain games, allowing discrimination of forgetting due to decay vs interference from intervening games - acting as a control. RESULTS: - Time was not a good predictor of forgetting - Forgetting increased with the number of intervening games - Shows forgetting was due to interference not trace decay.

Answer 102

METHOD: - Two lists: - List 1- DOG-CHAIR-AXE-SNOW-SHIRT-TREE - List 2-DOG-WINDOW-TRUCK-SMILE-SHIRT-BROOM - Asked to recall either list to test each interference type: - Proactive - Recall list 2 - Retroactive - Recall list 1 RESULTS: - Both recall tasks show existence of both RI/PI as both had trouble recalling - due to the order: - Retroactive couldn't remember old due to new. - Proactive couldn't remember new due to old.

Answer 103

The tendency for recall to be impaired by the provision of retrieval cues drawn from the same category of items in memory E.g.,: - Providing hints may impede memory retrieval! - The impairments is more severe with increasing number of cues provided from the same set. How does this work: - This works because presenting similar items as cues, strengthens their association to the cue, therefore increasing competition for non-cues making memory worse.

Answer 104

METHOD: - Trained participants on names of different types of trees. - Asked specific questions to retrieve a target memory (one of the trees) RESULTS: - Thought this would maximise the retrieval of the target memory but weakened it instead. - Providing cues therefore reduced the recall for the non-cued items

Answer 105

Selective/Partial retrieval can harm recall of other memories related to the retrieved item when compared to baseline items for which no related items had been retrieved. - This has important implications for learning and studying as selective retrieval may contribute to more severe forgetting for information that is not practiced/retrieved. IMPORTANT to recall **all** associated memories.

Answer 106

METHODS: - Presented participants with lists of items categorised into broad categories such as fruit- orange, fruit- banana etc. - In between testing ppts were asked to rehearse a specific example from a category (fruit- orange) - In the recall task, all items were tested on. RESULTS: - An increased probability of recalling orange from the fruit category was seen. - This came at the expense of the non-practiced items from the same category - Partial practice of a bit of information leads to worse memory of similar items.

Answer 107

It's when a cue fails to elicit a target trace because it repeatedly elicits a stronger competitor, leading people to abandon efforts to retrieve target. - Examples include: tip-of-the-tongue, Part-set cuing, retroactive interference (2nd list blocks 1st list), cue overload.

Answer 108

Associative bond linking a stimulus to a memory trace is punished by weakening it after being retrieved in error. - Difficult to demonstrate empirically - Examples: Retrieval induced forgetting, retroactive interference.

Answer 109

It allows the control of retrieval in the face of competition and may serve a functional purpose, therefore it can also be an active process - Facilitates future retrieval attempts of practiced/strengthened memories by **inhibiting** competitors - Serves goal-directed behaviour and decision-making and promotes flexibility in behaviour and enables the ability to generalise past events to new experiences.

Answer 110

- Heuristics - Ecological rationality

Answer 111

Simplifying strategies that reduce effort but are prone to bias/ systematic error.

Answer 112

Apparent biases may be rational responses, given the ecology of the human decision maker, so given the right information, our judgements are quite sensible. (The information provided is the basis of the decision - what is the quality of the information and how does that lead to a choice?)

Answer 113

- Availability - Representitaveness - Anchoring

Answer 114

Things that are perceived to occur often are assumed to have a higher chance of happening - whether the base assumption is true or not. If I want to judge how likely something is, try to bring to mind an example. If the example comes easily, its highly probable. If not then its rare. (e.g., people scared of shark attacks - rarely happen but when they do they are all over the news, hence people overestimate their occurrence).

Answer 115

METHODS -Lichtenstein presented participants with different causes of death such as heart disease and fireworks - ppts were then asked to estimate how likely these causes of death are. RESULTS: - People tend to overestimate rare events such as shark attacks because of media attention perhaps - People tend to underestimate common events such as heart attacks because its rarely bought to attention.

Answer 116

METHODS: - Ppts listened to a list of 39 names from two groups - Group one was 19 famous women and 20 less famous men - Group 2 was 19 famous men and 20 less famous women - The ppts were then asked to recall the names from their group: RESULTS: 12.3 names were recalled from the famous group vs 8.4 from the less famous group - When then asked which gender was more frequent in their group, 81% judged that the famous peoples gender was more common when in both groups the famous names always had less. CONCLUSIONS: - Shows that as people remember more of the famous peoples names, they use this heuristic to assume that gender was more frequent WHICH IS WRONG! - Heuristic isn't always right.

Answer 117

When a person believes that two events happening at the same time is more likely than either one of the events happening independently. Can occur due to availability.

Answer 118

METHODS: - Ppts were asked the question: 'in four pages of a novel, how many words would you expect to find that have the form either.... - _____ing? - or - _____n__? RESULTS: - Ppts stated that the first option would be found 13.4 amount of times and the second option 4.7 - This however is impossible because they are the same - there is actually more of the second because the first group is always included in the seconds parameters. CONCLUSION: - We are more exposed to the first option so it is easier to bring to mind words with 'ing'.

Answer 119

When judgements of probability are based on assessments of similarity. - Is it likely for this to be true given the similarity of my assumptions and the information in front of me?

Answer 120

METHODS: - Base rate information is the frequency of information in a population - Pps were given a description of a person and then presented with two pseudorandom pie charts: - One showed 70% confidence of an engineering career and the other a 30% confidence - The ppts were then asked to state the likelihood that the person was an engineer RESULTS: - Both groups stated that there was around a 50% chance that he was an engineer despite the very different pie charts that they saw - Shows that they neglect the base rate and instead draw from the description of the person only

Answer 121

If a person is presented with a random number and then asked to estimate a quantity, this origional random number will have an effect on the judgement we make.

Answer 122

METHODS: - Ppts are spun a wheel which either lands on 65% or 10% - They are then asked to consider this number - They are then asked to give a best estimate on the percentage of African countries in the United Nations RESULTS: - If the ppts had landed on 65%, the mean estimate was 45% - If the ppts had landed on 10%, the mean estimate was 25% CONCLUSION: - Shows that a **random** anchor causes us to use this as a heuristic and skew the answer based off of this.

Answer 123

METHODS: - Pps were asked their social security numbers - Were then asked the question: is the likelihood of the Republicans winning the next election more or less than [last 2 digits of social security number] e.g. 34% RESULTS: - The estimates correlated with the anchor e.g. 45% even though the social security number has nothing to do with the election.

Answer 124

When asking a ppts to provide a true value but they already have an anchor value in mind, the ppts makes steps to reach the true value. - As these steps are cognitive effort, not enough steps are made to reach the true value. Limitation - Incentives, warnings and cognitive capacity have little effect on accuracy. - Many other mechanisms produce the same effect.

Answer 125

Are the choices rational based on the ecology they are in? - Natural Frequencies - Misperception of randomness

Answer 126

Example about how likely we are to be successful for a hunt for food on the Savanna in 7 days: - Either we are told there is a 28.5% that there will be a certain amount of food - Or we go hunting and on 2/7 days we are successful. - Humans have an evolutionary preference for natural, rather than abstract, representations - we prefer the second option as it preserves the true or false nature of the question. - Percentages also do not tell us actual numbers whereas natural frequencies do.

Answer 127

METHODS: Eddy - Presented doctors with a paragraph littered with abstract percentages about a likelihood of a woman having cancer based on a positive mammogram. - Then asked them the question: 'Imagine a woman from this age group with a positive mammogram. What is the probability that she actually has breast cancer?' RESULTS: - 95 out of 100 doctors estimated 70-80% whereas the true number is 7.5%. METHODS: H & G - The study was then repeated where the abstract percentages were replaced with natural frequencies - Doctors answered way more accurately CONCLUSIONS: - Suggests that natural frequencies make it easier to reason with the problem

Answer 128

Bayes theory is an equation which updates an estimate in light of new evidence and background information.

Answer 129

Humans have an incorrect idea of randomness: - e.g. Apple music had complaints because their music on shuffle wasn't 'random' enough. - Had to change the algorithm to make it less random in order to have a better perception of randomness.

Answer 130

If a random process produces a series of the same outcome over and over again (such as red on a roulette wheel), people then think that this 'streak' must end which is **not true if it is truly random**.

Answer 131

METHODS: - Observed gamblers in even likelihood games and looked at the proportion of bets that think winning a streak will continue vs end. - Observed streaks of 1-6 wins RESULTS: - As the streak continues, the more the gamblers bet that the streak will end. - Incorrect as it is always 50% likely that either outcome occurs.

Answer 132

Through representativeness, Tversky and Kahneman state that people expect a local sequence to have properties of generating process (long sequence). - So HHHHHT is not as representative as HTHTTH - People assume that small samples reflect that of larger samples which isn't the case as given the nature of small samples- we will get a bias - larger samples will be roughly equal. (basically people can't do stats)

Answer 133

The misperception of randomness is due to inappropriate generalization of past experience. People usually experience random mechanical outcomes = sampling without replacement - numbers don't repeat themselves due to not being replaced. - This is different from roulette wheels though which have continuous replacement - So, the streak of a same outcome prediction is a sensible inference based on experiences we have with replacement.

Answer 134

People only ever see finite sequences and can only hold a short subsection of a sequence in memory (e.g., the last 4 - 8 outcomes out of 100) - Hahn and Warren looked at the properties of fair coin tosses under realistic conditions by stimulating thousands of conditions The conditions that the human brain has access to (the two at top of this card) predict that the gamblers fallacy is likely - as shown by the beginnings of the random coin toss generator results.

Answer 135

- Daniel Kahneman - There are two systems going on in the head when engaging in decision making. A fast evolutionary decision (heuristic) and a more ethical and reasonable way - Heuristics are the default.

Answer 136

- Inductive - Deductive

Answer 137

Drawing general conclusions from particular instances. The conclusions are not necessarily true. (This will be true based on past experiences)

Answer 138

Drawing conclusion which follow necessarily from the premises; if we accept that the premises are true, and if the argument follows the rules of logic, then the conclusion has to be true too. (The conditions of said behaviour are set, therefore the behaviour will occur)

Answer 139

A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions (usually) that are asserted or assumed to be true. - Involve the terms: *All*, *None*, *Some* and *Some not* - Such arguments may be valid or invalid. - Validity is determined by the structure of the argument - the relationship between the premises and the conclusion. Example: - First premise: A and B - Second premise: B and C - Conclude something about A and C

Answer 140

METHODS: - Presented participants with the syllogism: - ALL Psychologists (A) are Comedians (B) - ALL Comedians (B) are Tap-Dancers (C) - What can we conclude? RESULTS: - 88% of people concluded the correct answer that all psychologists are tap dancers. METHODS: - Then presented with another syllogism: - ALL Psychologists (B) are Poets (A) - ALL Psychologists (B) are Acrobats - What can we conclude? RESULTS: - 8% of people concluded the correct answer that some poets are acrobats. CONCLUSION: - So, different structural features of the problem change performance.

Answer 141

People do not engage in reasoning but base their response on heuristics. - People chose a conclusion that matches the 'atmosphere': quality and quantity of the premises shapes and conclusions. (week 8 for more info...)

Answer 142

METHODS: - PPts were presented with 64 reasoning problems comprising of two premises and a choice oof 4 conclusions. - Ppts indicated if any of the 4 conclusions followed on from the premises - 19 of the 64 Problems had a valid solution whereas 45 problems had 'no valid conclusion' RESULTS: - When the question had two positive/ affirmative premises, ppts would chose the conclusion which was positive 79% of the time whereas there was actually 'no valid conclusion' - When the question has a negatively directed premise, ppts would choose the negative conclusion 73% of the time whereas there was actually 'no valid conclusion' - When both premises were universally directed, the ppts chose the universal option 77% of the time whereas there was actually 'no valid conclusion' - When a premise was particularly directed, ppts would chose the particular conclusion 90% of the time, whereas **there was actually 'no valid conclusion'**. CONCLUSION: - This shows that people match the mood of the premise and incorrectly choose the conclusion that follows this.

Answer 143

Their study fails to explain why/how ppts decide whether or not a syllogism has a valid conclusion, yet when ppts are given two premises and asked 'what follows?' they correctly identify that there is no valid inference 29-40% of the time (Robert and Sykes) - The idea that their conclusions are guided by the atmosphere of the premise doesn't capture this.

Answer 144

Do people understand what they are being asked to do when given the premises.? - It reflects the differences between the use of language in formal logic and in everyday life.' - For example: - If 'All A are B' - This does not mean that 'All A are B, and vice versa" - Also; if 'Some A are B' - This does not mean that 'Some, but not all, A are B'

Answer 145

METHODS: - Presented wooden blocks and had people reason about their properties. - In the 'traditional' version of the task, people were given the syllogisms: - 'All blocks with holes are red' - and - 'All blocks with holes are triangular' RESULTS: - Only 1 in 40 people correctly identified that some red blocks are triangular as a valid inference - More than half endorsed that all red blocks are triangular. CONCLUSIONS: - They argue that syllogistic reasoning errors arise because people don't properly apprehend the premises in the way that the experimenter intends.

Answer 146

The more alternative models are considered, the more likely one is to draw the correct conclusion.

Answer 147

- Step 1: (comprehension) use language and background knowledge to construct a mental model of the state of the world that is being applied by the premises - Step 2: (description) combine models implied by the premises into a composite and use this to try to draw a conclusion that goes beyond re-iterating the premises - Step 3: (validation) search for alternative models, if all of these are consistent with the initial conclusion it is judged as valid, if one or more of the new models contradict the conclusion, reject it and try to construct an alternative that can then be validated. - If there is only one possible model - this is a 'one model syllogism'. However if there are multiple interpretations and conclusions then this is a 'multiple model syllogism'- which are usually harder to reason.

Answer 148

METHODS: - Gave people a working memory test to see their mental capacity - Then present ppts with a syllogism: - 'All cyclists are coffee-drinkers' - 'All coffee-drinkers are surgeons' - They the provided 9 possible conclusions for the syllogism and asked to decide on the correct answer RESULTS: - When the syllogism was only a one-model syllogism then there was 87% correct and 25s reaction time - When the syllogism was a two-model there was 40% correct and a reaction time of 29s - And when the syllogism was a three-model, there was 34% correct and a reaction tie of 33 seconds CONCLUSIONS: - Shows that more possible models leads to less accuracy and slower processing - The people with higher working memory determined at the beginning were faster and more accurate

Answer 149

METHODS: - Ppts given syllogism - Asked to write down conclusion - Straight after answering the problem, they were provided with a list of 9 possible conclusions - Asked to indicate all of the 9 conclusions they had considered when coming to their own conclusion RESULTS: - When a single-model 70% were correct and 1.05 conclusions were considered - When multiple-model 12% were correct and 1.12 conclusions were considered - When indeterminate 19% were correct and 1.12 conclusions were considered CONCLUSIONS: - Shows that multiple problems are harder as accuracy decreases - People only construct one model which is not consistent with the mental models idea and there is no correlation between numbers considered and accuracy

Answer 150

Emphasises the contribution of background knowledge snd the role that reasoning plays onto natural conversation Reason is affected by the framing of the problems adn the ppts prior experience

Answer 151

METHODS: - Gave ppts valid and invalid premises with either believable or unbelievable conclusions. RESULTS - When given a valid and believable conclusion 89% determined that it was plausible. - When given a valid but unbelievable conclusion 56% determined that it was plausible. - When given an invalid but believable conclusion 71% determined that it was plausible. - Lastly, when given an invalid and unbelievable conclusion 10% determined it as believable. CONCLUSIONS: - Plausibility increased the judges validity of both valid and invalid arguments - Arguments about validity are influenced by beliefs both about the conclusions themselves and about the probability that these conclusions will be true.

Answer 152

Involves conditionals (such as 'if, and, not, or') - How do these conditions influence reasoning EXAMPLE: 'If it is raining, then I take the bus'. - If we are told it is raining - and conclude we took the bus- this is a valid modus ponens (97% accuracy) - If we are told we did not take the bus- and we conclude it is not raining- this is a valid modul tollens (74% accuracy) - If we are told we took the bus- and we conclude that it is raining- this is an invalid affirmation of consequent (64% inaccuracy) - If we are told it is not raining- and we conclude that we did not take the bus- this is an invalid denial of antecedent (56% inaccuracy)

Answer 153

Methods: - Present ppts with a line of 4 cards: - D, K, 3, 7 - State the 'rule': - 'If there is a D on one side of any card, then there is a 3 on its other side' - Ask the ppts 'what card/cards do I need to flip over to determine if the rule is true?' RESULTS: - The correct answer is D and 7 (because if there is a D behind 7 then the premise would be false) - One out of 34 ppts chose the correct cards - The 'rule' can be more generally phrased as 'if P (D) then Q (3)'

Answer 154

Confirmation bias occurs as we look for evidence that confirms our theory instead of falsifying it. - That's why people chose the 3 card - If there was a D on the other side, it would confirm.

Answer 155

METHODS: - Present a 4 card selection task - S, 9 G, 4 - Q 1: 'If there is an S on one side, then there will be a 9 on the other' - 88%, 50%, 8%, 33% - Q 2: 'If there is an S on one side, then there will not be a 9 on the other - 92%, 58%, 4%, 8% RESULTS: - Here we are changing the conditional rule and disproving the confirmation bias as an explanation. - Confirmation bias would cause people in group 2 to select S and 4 the most, instead it leads to a logically correct response EXPLANATION: - Therefore a matching heuristic would explain as people chose items that are explicitly mentioned

Answer 156

Comprehension may reflect on the ppts interpretation of the terms For example in the four-cards task the question that is asked is: - 'If there is a D on one side' but this may be interpreted as - 'If there is a D on top' another example: - 'Then there is a 3 on the other' but this might be interpreted as - 'Then there is a 3 on the other, and vice versa' - Many people misunderstand the rule but reason consistently after that.

Answer 157

Mental models are cognitive structures representing knowledge and play a crucial role in propositional reasoning. Propositional reasoning involves drawing conclusions from given statements through logical inference. Mental models are characterized by abstraction, flexibility, and inherent limitations. They contrast with formal logic in being intuitive and adaptable, providing a basis for heuristics. EXAMPLE: Present the premise: - 'If there is a Circle, then there is a Triangle' Conclusions drawn in step 2 are: - Given Circle - conclude Triangle (MP) - Given Triangle - conclude Circle (AC) - Given no Triangle - no conclusion possible - failure to draw MT. - The AC fallacy and the failure to draw MT inference would both be avoided if we expended the mental effort and see the other mental models that are consistent with the information in the conditional by constructing models that incorporate no circles and no triangles.

Answer 158

METHODS: - Present ppts with 4 cards either: Drinking a Beer, Drinking a Coke, 16y.o, 22y.o - They are then shown the rule: - 'If a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 19 years of age' RESULTS: - In comparison to the abstract model (previous studies like the D, 3 etc... (0% chose p, not q) 73% chose p, not q in this model based on nothing more than changing the cover story. - (They chose right due to the story's context)

Answer 159

Reasoning about permissible behaviours and rules being broken. (concerned with questions of whether actions are forbidden or allowed, obligatory or not obligatory)

Answer 160

Cuing of relevant prior experiences: - But 'If a man eats cassava root, then he must have a tattoo on his face'- does not cause an increase in performance compared to the abstract task Evolved 'cheater detection' algorithm: - But 'If you clear up spilt blood, then you must wear rubber gloves' causes an increase in performance but cleaning up blood is not a benefit of detecting a cheater Relevance/Expected Utility of the various cards: - How irrelevant is the card to the problem at hand

Answer 161

METHODS: - Tell ppts to imagine that they work in a travel agency in 1979 and that they need to check that customers have followed the rule: - 'If a person travels to any East African country, then that person must be immunized against cholera' - Present 4 cards - Mr Neri Ethiopia, Mr Verdi Canada, Cholera, None RESULTS: - 62% of people correctly chose p and not q METHODS: - Then tell other ppts to imagine that your boss is worried that she may have mis-informed customers. Check whether customers have followed the rule: - 'If a person travels to any East African country, then that person must be immunized against cholera' - Present 4 cards - Mr Rossi Eritrea, Mr Bianco, France, Cholera, None RESULTS: - 71% of people incorrectly chose p and q because the context has changed and they chose the card they think has the highest utility. CONCLUSION: - The idea of utility comes first in determining what we are going to do, so the 4 card study is a poor tool for studying this.

Answer 162

A decision that we have to make from multiple options that has no risks- we have to integrate information in order to decide.

Answer 163

Choosing between two attributes at different periods in time. People prefer the earlier reward. Here the variation in attribute is not the different decisions but instead time.

Answer 164

There is some uncertainty to our decision. We don't know what the probabilities are.

Answer 165

Decisions where we don't know what the probabilities are.

Answer 166

The expected value (EV) of an option is the sum of each possible outcome weighted by its probability EV=p1a1+p2a2+p3a3+....pnan a=the value of the outcomes p= the probability of the outcomes n=the total number of outcomes

Answer 167

- ppts are presented with two options - A: An 80% chance of $4000 - B: $3000 for sure -EV A: 0.8 X $4000 + 0.2 X $0- $3200 -EV B: 1.0 X $3000=$3000 -80% of people choose option B. This means that they are 'risk aversive' for gains

Answer 168

The expected utility hypothesis states an agent chooses between risky prospects by comparing expected utility values (i.e. the weighted sum of adding the respective utility values of payoffs multiplied by their probabilities) EXPLANATION:... - Is the subjective value of the outcome- an alternative to expected value - Utility function is concave, people have diminishing sensitivity to increasingly large gains so that the subjective value of a higher score is less - Decisions made according to expected utility are rational, in the sense that they conform to a set of axioms whose reasonableness is hard to dispute, so.... - If A is preferred to B and B is preferred to C, then A is preferred to C

Answer 169

- Ppts are given two options - A: An 80% chance for of $4000 - B: $3000 for sure What would you choose? - EU(A) = 0.8 X u (4000) + 0.2 X u (0) = 0.8 X 145 =116 - EU(B) = 1.0 X u (3000) = 0.1 X 122 = 122 - SO Expected utility captures risk aversion and tells us to choose option B

Answer 170

**Method** - Group A are given $1000 - Now pick between these two options - A: A 50% chance of $1000 - B: $500 for sure - Group B are given $2000 - Now pick between these two options - C: 50% chance of -$1000 - D: -$500 for sure **Results** - In group A 84% went for option B and in group B 69% went for option A even though A an C are identical and so are B and D in terms of outcome **Conclusion** - Here, it shows that it is about framing. If something is framed as a gain or a loss we process and make out decisions differently - The preference reversal between the two versions of the task violates reality.

Answer 171

- Outcomes considered as gains or losses with respect to a reference point- often the status quo - Whatever the current level of wealth is depends on our decisions. We focus on a change in wealth with respect to a reference point.

Answer 172

Prospect theory posits that people tend to be risk-averse when the stakes are high, and risk-accepting when the stakes are low (Prospect theory posits an S shaped value function which is concave for gains and convex for losses defined with respect to the current reference point).

Answer 173

**- Risk averse for (perceived) gains** e.g. Gaining $1000 doesn't seem much better than gaining $500- so don't take the risk **- Risk seeking for (perceived) losses** e.g. Losing $1000 doesn't seem much worse than losing $500- so why not take a chance?

Answer 174

- It feels worse to loose $1000 than to gain - So, the loss curve is steeper (about 2X) - A loss of a given magnitude has greater subjective magnitude than a gain of the same size.

Answer 175

Finding that people value an item they already own more than one they would be prepared to pay for the same item if they didn't own it.

Answer 176

**Method** - Ppts are split into three groups: - Group 1: start with nothing and are asked whether they want to take a mug or a chocolate bar home - Group 2: Start with a mug and are asked whether they want to keep the mug or swap to the chocolate bar - Group 3: Start with the chocolate bar and are asked whether they want to keep this or swap to the mug **Result** - In group 1 there was approximately equal decision with 56% choosing the mug - In group 2 89% of people chose to keep the mug - In group 3, 10% of people decided to swap to the mug ***Conclusion*** - **This shows that once we have taken ownership, it takes on more value.** - So, considering swapping would entail losing the mug and gaining the chocolate bar (vice versa). As the loss is steeper in value for function it would feel like more of a loss

Answer 177

The idea that **people disproportionately weight outcomes which are guaranteed to occur** so that a reduction of the probability of an outcome by a constant factor has more impact when the outcome was initially certain than when it was merely possible.

Answer 178

**Method** - Ppts were split into two groups - Group 1 had the option of either - A: 5% chance to win a 3-week tour of England, France and Italy - B: 10% chance to win a 1-week tour of England - Group 2 had the option of either - A: 50% chance to win a 3-week tour of England, France and Italy - B: 1-week tour of England with certainty **results ** - In group A 67% of people went for option A - In group B 78% of people went for option B **conclusion** - This shows that changes in probability will have a much bigger impact when they approach certainty (0% or 100%) even though relative differences may be the same.

Answer 179

People overweight extreme probabilities and under-weight moderate ones.

Answer 180

**method** - Ppts are split into two groups - Group 1 are told 'You have two lotteries to win $250. One offers a 5% chance to win the prize and the other offers a 30% chance to win the prize' - Then given two options - A: you can improve the chances of winning the first lottery from 5 to 10% - B: you can improve the second lottery from 30 to 35% - Group 2 are told same thing, however the inital odds are now 65% and 90% - Then given two options - C: You can improve the chance of winning the first lottery from 65 to 70% - D: you can improve the chances of winning the second lottery from 90 to 95% In both group conditions, participants were asked as to what choice appeared to be the most significant change (even though the real value of change was the same) **results** In groups 1 and 2, the choices which tended more to certainty ( Option A and Option D) were the choices more people chose as significant. **Conclusion** When a change is made near a degree of certainty, it is percieved as more valuable than those not, showcasing the value of probabilities is percieved as non-linear

Answer 181

A non-linear mapping between stated probabilities and the weight given to the corresponding outcome when forming an overall evaluation of prospect. There is more weight near the the values of certainty (0 or 1) hence the non-linear mapping

Answer 182

**Method** - - Ppts are given two options - A: a 95% chance to win $2.50 and a 5% chance to lose $0.75 (P-bet) - B: a 40% chance to win $8.50 and a 60$ chance to lose %1.50 ($-bet) - Choose which side they would go for ( majority went for P-bet) - An hour later they are asked -'You own a ticket for this bet, what is your minimum selling price?' **Results** - 73% of people who chose the P-bet then change to sell the $-bet for a higher price **Conclusion** - When choosing, we want to win. when asked to value, we focus on the dollar amount and give it a higher price - Shows that preferences are constructed by elicitation procedures rathher than reflected in peoples responses in those tasks. They imply that there is no stable valye function relating objective and subjective value

Answer 183

**Method** - - Ppts are split into two groups: - Group 1 given three options of papers to buy - A: online only- $59.99 - B: Print only- $125.00 - C: Print and online- $125.00 -Group 2 are given only two options - D: Online only- $59.99 - E: Print and online- $125.00 **results** - In group 1, 84% of pepole chose option C and in group 2, 68% of people chose option D **Conclusion** - SO, the bad option makes the other one look good. - This violates the core assumption of conventional rational choice theory- namely the independence from irrelevant alternatives.

Answer 184

- Are there universal 'basic emotions'? - What is the role of physiological change?

Answer 185

- Anger - Fear - Suprise - Sadness - Disgust - Enjoyment

Answer 186

- Rapid Onset - Brief Duration - Unbidden occurrence - Disctinctive universal signals - Specific physiological correlates

Answer 187

- A dimentional view using the Core Affect. - They argue against the categorical conception of emotion - Rather there is a single core affect which compares two dimentions: positive to negative valence vs high to low arousal

Answer 188

- Anger is a negative valence with high arousal - Calm is high valence with low arousal

Answer 189

- Expressions are based on what we culturally know, they aren't universal - He found that since 2008, evidence for universal emotions are weak

Answer 190

'The bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion' This is their proposed process: - Stimulus - Percept - Physiological Changes - Emotion

Answer 191

- Stimulus - Percept - Emotion - Physiological Changes **- People without peripheral inputs still perceive emotion, so peripheral arousal doesn't directly recreate emotion** - There also aren't enough peripheral states to fit every emotion

Answer 192

- Conducted a meta-analysis - Used multivariate pattern classification analysis; a form of machine learning that seeks to optimise the ability to classify emotional states on the basis of physiological indicators - Found that they could not do this (predict emotions based on physiology)

Answer 193

**method** - - Administered an injection of Suproxin - Or Administered a placebo - Half of each group was told that they wouldn't experience any side effect from the injection (ignorant) - The other half of each groups was told they would experience side effects (informed) - A stooge was then introduced who was either euphoric or angry - Wanted to see how each group reacted to the stooge by rating their mood in a questionnaire **Results** - Pps who were in the euphoric stooge, informed condition wouldn't get any happier - If the Ppts was in the ignorant condition they would then match the stooge

Answer 194

- Suggest that there is a cognitive, physiological, expressive and subjective element to emotions - Physiology is important but there isn't a clear fingerprint for specific emotions or simple, indirected causal pathways between the different components of emotion

Answer 195

- People make decisions consciously or unconsciously - They then *evaluate* the information about possible outcomes associated with different courses of an action - The evaluation is shaped by *characteristics* of the options and the decision maker - The evaluation process is presumed to be shaped by ones *current emotional state* which is in turn shaped by a range of factors - These factors include background emotions that reflect relatively stable aspects of the decision maker or transcient, incidental responses to external events. (Week 10 powerpoint shows the 'decision' tree esc layout that lerner et al proposed)

Answer 196

Reduced fear conditioning: - When tested for selective recognition of fear from face photos (group of ppts looked at face photos of fearful expressions, it was found to be impaired as results show they recognised fear 4/10 instead of 8.6/10 for normal functioning) - Lack of enhanced memory for emotional components of a narrative (story) - Recall of emotional information prediced by amygdala activation at encoding

Answer 197

- No elevated SCR (skin conductance response) for emotional stimuli with 'social significance'. - More likely to overcome an emotional response during a moral dilemma (more likely to choose the utilitarian response in the trolly scenario) - Hightened emotional reactivity and hypoemotionality - Lack of emotional reactions - Poor real-world decision-making

Answer 198

- Ppts play a game to win money (start with 2000) - Have to choose between 4 decks of cards - Decks A and B have large winnings and even larger losses as you go through the cards - Decks C and D have smaller winnings with small losses - In order to earn more money, a ppts would have to realise that C and D are the smarter choices

Answer 199

- Participants are more likely than controls to choose the bad decks (A and B) - Trial-by-trial analysis showed that controls initially smaple from all decks and then gravitated to C and D - vmPFC patients continue to draw from A and B throughout the task

Answer 200

- There is little response between the patients and controls when the card was revealed - There was a big difference in anticipatory response - SCR was high for controls and low for patients

Answer 201

- Amygdala and vmPFC patients did not learn to select from the good decks - Anticipatory SCR for both Amygdala and vmPFC patients was abolished. - vmPFC SCR outcome response remains normal - Amygdala SCR outcome response is abolished (SCR= skin conductive responses) SUGGESTS: - The amygdala is involved in associating particular stimuli or actions with affectively-meaningful outcomes (cannot encode) - The vmPFC is crucial at reactivating these representations at the time of choice (cannot recall previous encoding)

Answer 202

**Method** - Conduct the Iowa gambling task - Every 10 trials the patient was asked: - 'Tell me all you know about what was going on in this game?' & 'Tell me how you feel about this game?' **Results** - Based on ppts response to these questions, they found 4 stages of the study. - Pre punishment - pre hunch stage - Hunch Stage - Conceptual stage **Conclusion** - In normal individuals, non-conscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does. Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be insufficient to ensure advantageous behaviour

Answer 203

- Pre punishment stage: People are yet to encounter any losses

Answer 204

- Pre hunch stage: After a few losses, controls begin to generate anticipartory SCR's but all indicated that they 'did not have a clue what was going on'

Answer 205

- Hunch stage: After about 50 cards (i.e halfway) , normal ppts expressed a 'hunch' that A and B were risky and generated SCR's when selecting this deck. vmPFC's did not generate SCR's or express a hunch

Answer 206

- Conceptual stage: By the 80th trial, (i.e most of the way through) 7/10 normal ppts conceptually explained why A and B were worse that C and D. 3/6 vmpFC's showed anticipatory SCR's and all continued to favour the 'bad' decks.

Answer 207

- When we are making decisions, the decision making process has a conscious and unconscious element -**A given situation activates *dispositional knowledge* of the emotional experience previously associated with the various options** - This retrieval of emotions reactivates the somatic states - The vmPFC is seen as a key structure in storing such knowledge

Answer 208

- Group of individuals with pure automatic failure (degenration of autonomic neurons) who cannot regulate body states - These ppts were significantly more likely than controls to select the good decks - Clearly don't need somatic changes to signal which decks to pick

Answer 209

- **We may have a somatic cue but this might not have much to do with the outcome** - In the Iowa gambling task, decks **A and B** are not only bad, but they **have larger amounts of money for both wins and losses** and the varience of the outcomes is higher - The **greater anticipator SCR's might therefore reflect the uncertainty** associated with selecting from one of these decks rather that their long-run profitability - **If we change the task so overall losses are no longer confounded** we can see if it is the overall amount we are winning or losing - Or is it simply just the amount of money in one go that is driving the SCR - **In the modified version, the better decks lead to higher SCR, no matter how much you can lose in an instance** -** Shows that SCR is driven by one individual loss, **not the overall accumulation - **Therefore, anticipatory response does not signal that the deck is bad.**

Answer 210

**Criticised the questions asked by Bechara on the ppts' knowledge of the study** METHODS - Instead they asked more detailed questions where ppts were asked to estimate factors of the study RESULTS - 18/20 ppts gave responses to the questions which indicated that they knew which decks were best, right from their first question period - this level of performance was often higher than their behavioural performance CONCLUSIONS - Suggests that unconscious knowledge is unecessary

Answer 211

- In the Iowa Gambling task, losses all occur later on so they changed the study so that losses occur earlier now - Old results: Controls 62%, vmPFC 50% - New results: Controls 72%, vmPFC 68% - Suggests that they cannot recall the data and the unconscious element is hindered because of this - **vmPFC patients therefore may do badly because the initial positive experience set up a response tendency which they fail to overcome** once they have negative outcomes from the high-stake decks start to arrive -** Shows that they find it hard to relearn**

Answer 212

**Method** - Choose between 4 decks - Then predict the colour of the card when turned over (red or green) - If ppts is correct, they win some money - If ppts is incorrect, they lose some money **Results** - Decks A and B were 60% win rate with both having a mean profit of 200 - Decks C and D were 40% win rate with both having a mean profit of -200 - They learnt to choose A and B - SCR went up when choosing a bad deck and so did heart rate - They probed conscious knowledge of deck oucomes and found little evidence of overt knowledge **Conclusion** - People who experienced larger warning signals in their physiology made more advantageous choices - Physiology may then guide decision making.

Answer 213

**Method** - Ppts are given a 'standard' line and then a group of green lines - They are than asked to judge which of the green lines is the same as the standard one - There was a clear answer - They introduce confederates which all give an obviously incorrect answer **results** - In 12 trials, 29% of all ppts never made a mistake and didn't conform - 75% of ppts conformed at least once **Conclusion** -Therefore, if people around us give a different answer, we are more likely to conform also.

Answer 214

- In 1977 KLM and Pan-Am jumbo jets collided on a runway in Tenerife - Over 500 people died - An investigation into the incident found that the engineer did not challege the captain's decision to procees with take-off despite doubting the runway was clear - Overall, when officers of different rank occupied the cockpits together, accidents increased - 40% of junior co-pilots reported not relaying concerns about safety to senior pilors.

Answer 215

This is an act which people are now trained in Involved challenging senior colleagues and teaching senior colleagues to recognise when they are being challanged and respond appropriately If they are challenged, they have to record it as a safety accident.

Answer 216

- Asked ppts to state the minimum probability of success they would accept when considering a risky move in chess - First the group made the decision individually, then again as a group - Found that groups consistently endorsed a riskier judgement than the average of individuals

Answer 217

- When looking at people who are generally less risky individuals and they complete the same chess task as propsed in the risky shift - The group consensus will decide on making an even safer decision - When in a group we radicalise our beleifs- therefore polarization.

Answer 218

- Real life example where Juries are told to rate 8 traffic felony cases based on how guilty the defendant is individually on a scale of 1-20 - 4 of these cases would illicit high levels of guilt due to the highly incriminiating nature - 4 of these cases would illicit low levels of guilt due to the not so incriminating nature - They then discussed the cases in a group and rated all the cases again - Alongside this they were asked to state the punishment they would endorse on a scale of 1-7 assuming the defendent was found guilty - For both assessment of guilt and severity of punishment ppts showed evidence of polarisation

Answer 219

- Were interested in why so many catastrophic events occur when groups are deciding - These situations always have clear characteristics - **Cohesive groups striving for unanimity and avoiding criticism or conflict** -Exacerbated in homogenous teams, where members are, or become, too similar **- Members are reluctant to criticise and even actively defend the consensus view from outside critique** - Most likely to occur due to the effects of conformity, authority and polarisation - More of a description than a theory

Answer 220

- Went to a county fair and noticed a game people played where they had to guess the weight of an ox - They had to pay a certain amount of money to make their guess- so had to be confident in their guess **Results** - It was found that if the median of the guesses was taken it was only 1% off the actual weight of the ox even though individual scores were very varied

Answer 221

**Method** - Examined the decisions of 101 radiologists looking at mammograms - Had to individually make a decision of whether the patient had cancer or not - Grouped the decisions of the doctors based on whether they were similar in accuracy, medium in accuracy or low in accuracy - Looked at how often these groups override the best individual within this group **results** - Found that groups of doctors with similar levels of diagnostic accuracy will outperform the best doctor in the group - However if the doctors have different levels of accuracy, the best doctor will perform better. - So, it doesn't matter how good the doctor is overall, just how similar they are in accuracy

Answer 222

**Background** - In day-to-day, there are certain questions that people tend to get wrong such as 'What is the capital of Australia' - So, here, if we looked at the crowds most popular answer, it is unlikely it will be correct **Method** - Asked ppts the question 'Philadelphia is the capital of Pennsylvania- Yes, or no?' - People state what they think the answer will be and then are asked what they think other people will answer **Conclusion** - If ppts state 'no' (few people get this answer), they then think that others will not get the same answer as them - If ppts state 'yes', they beleive that others will agree with them - The answer that exceeds its expected popularity will very often be the correct answer

Answer 223

- Had 101 ppts divided into different groups - Group 1- Reliability condition where individuals are asked the same questions many times - Group 2- Dieletical bootstrapping condition where ppts are asked a question and then told to internally question themselves on different levels before being asked again - If ppts are in Group 1, there is no accuracy gain. - If they had the argument with themselves in Group 2, there was a 4% accuracy gain - If they discussed with a group, there was over a 6% accuracy gain.

Answer 224

- **When given an anchor** so cannot cancel out systematic errors. - An anchor introduces bias and the wisdom of the crowd is no longer close

Answer 225

**Background** - Ants like their nests to be dark and have small entrances - They are given two nests- A has a smaller entrance and B is darker **Method** - They are then presented with a decoy C which is clearly the worse choice but is either more similar to A or B. **Results** - Individually the ants have to pick between A, B and C - The ant will go for A or B depending on which C is most similar to as it makes the other option seem more desirable - However, if you let the ants choose as a colony, they make better choices where a decoy doesn't influence their decision anymore **Conclusion** - Colonies make individual measurements and then pool to choose the best nest.

Answer 226

The tendency to ignore relevant statistical information in favour of case-specific information.

Answer 227

**Method** - Given the P, not Q challenge with 4 cards - Participants are asked to do the task individually - Then asked to do the task as a group **Results** - 75% of groups compared to 9.5% of individuals make the corrct decision **Conclusion** - Group decision leads to better reasoning - This is not because there is one person who knows the answer, as even if all the individuals guessed wrong, as a group they correctly guessed - Its all about discussing the correct answer among the group.

Answer 228

METHODS: - Ppts are given 9 letters and numbers and are told that they somehow map onto each other - In order to figure this out they are allowed to ask questions and then they can make a hypothesis which is either confirmed or denied RESULTS: - There are different strategies on how to do this and the number of questions that are asked determines how well the task was completed. - Groups do better than the best individual in a group could have done alone - Except for groups of 2 - Groups larger than two have less trials and more sophisticated strategies

Answer 229

People only construct one model. If the conclusion is believable, look for consistent model If the conclusion is unbelievable, look for inconsistent model. **If desire model can't be constructed** then swayed by belief. Therefore, belief produces an overall bias AND affects reasoning itself.

Answer 230

- Independence and Diversity - These are qualities that are necessary for the success of wisdom of the crowd phenomena

Answer 231

That having to retrieve the answer, rather than being presented with it, leads to better retention. Errors MUST be corrected otherwise this can lead to the retrieval or the erroneous answer.

Answer 232

Stating each concept is represented by a single node is oversimplified: - What about abstract concepts like 'justice'? Does each concept have a fixed mental representation? - Situation/context in which we encounter concepts changes the way we process them. - Do different people have similar representations of any given concept? No consensus on the most appropriate way to measure semantic distance.

Cognition 21081 Flashcards

(256 cards)