Cognition Flashcards
1
Q
Cognition
A
the process of thinking in all its forms; including memory, intelligence, creative thinking and problem solving, and language
2
Q
Memory
A
- information processing
- memory systems
- retrieval
- retrieval failure
3
Q
Information processing
A
involves:
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
4
Q
Encoding
A
- transforming sensory input from short-term to long-term memory
- requires focused attention and rehearsal
5
Q
Storage
A
-retention of encoded info over time
6
Q
Retrieval
A
-process of getting info out of storage
7
Q
Memory systems
A
Involves:
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
- biology of memory
8
Q
Sensory memory
A
- registers info from senses
- holds info from the senses for a max of a few seconds
- involves: iconic memory, echoic memory, selective attention, automatic processing, parallel processing, & effortful processing
9
Q
Iconic (visual) memory
A
-momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
10
Q
Echoic memory
A
-momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
11
Q
Selective attention
A
- focused awareness onta a stimuli in sensory memory
- allows encoding into short-term memory (STM)
12
Q
Automatic processing
A
- unconscious encoding of info about time, space, frequency, or previously well-learned material
- unconscious encoding does not interfere with thinking about other things
13
Q
Parellel processing
A
-processing which involves several info streams simultaneously
14
Q
Effortful processing
A
-encoding that requires conscious, focused attention and effort
15
Q
Short-term memory (STM)
A
- aka working memory
- retains 7 (+/-) bits of info
- retains info for approximately 30 seconds
- integrates no info with current info/experience by: rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, & chunking
16
Q
Rehearsal
A
-conscious repetition of info to maintain info in STM or to encode it for storage
17
Q
Elaborative rehearsal
A
-repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories stored in LTM
18
Q
Chunking
A
- grouping information into meaningful units
- increases the capacity of STM
19
Q
Long-term memory (LTM)
A
- relatively permanent storage
- unlimited capacity
- subdivided into explicit memory and implicit memory
20
Q
Explicit memory
A
- aka declarative memory
- memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows and can verbalize
- subdivided in semantic and episodic memory
21
Q
Semantic memory
A
-memory of general knowledge or objective facts
22
Q
Episodic memory
A
-memory of personally experienced events
23
Q
Flashbulb memory
A
-vivid memory of an emotionally charged event
24
Q
Implicit memory
A
- aka non-declarative memory
- memory of skills or procedures
- learned from experience without having to refer to the experience
25
Procedural memory
- type of implicit memory of: perceptual abilities, motor skills, and cognitive skills
- the experience that once you learn something you don't think about how you learned it
26
Organization of info
-includes: hierarchies, concepts, prototypes, semantic networks, schemas, and connectionism
27
Hierarchies
-concepts are arranged from general to specific
28
Concepts
-mental representations of related things
29
Prototypes
-the most typical examples of a concept
30
Semantic networks
-multiple links from one concept to another
31
Schemas
- framework of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events
- based on past experience
32
Connectionism
- theory that memories are units of info stored throughout the brain
- memories are the result of interaction between the many units of info stored throughout the brain
- examples include the Neural Network model and the Parallel Distributed model
33
Neural Network model
-memory formation, storage, and retrieval are the result of communication between neurons
34
Parallel Distributed model
- neural networks interact to store memories
| - memories are created by modifying the strength of the connections between neurons
35
Biology of Memory
-involves the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, and forebrain
36
Thalamus
-encodes sensory memory into STM
37
Hippocampus
-along with the frontal and temporal lobes, is involved with the establishing of explicit LTM
38
Amygdala
-proceses strong, emotionally charged memories
39
Cerebellum
-processes implicit memory of skills
40
Forebrain
-long-term potentiation (LTP)
41
Long-term potentiation
-the strengthening of synaptic connections which is the basis of memory
42
Retrieval
-process of getting info out of storage, putting together the pieces of our memory puzzle
43
Retrieval cue
-a trigger to get info from storage
44
Priming
-activating, consciously or unconsciously, specific associations in memory
45
Recognition
-identification of something as familiar
46
Recall
-retrieval of info from LTM without any other info or cues
47
Serial position effect
-stronger recollection of info at the beginning and the end of a list of words
48
Primacy effect
-stronger recollection of the beginning
49
Recency effect
-stronger recollection of the end
50
Encoding specificity principle
-retrieval depends upon the match between the way info is encoded and the way it is retrieved
51
Context-dependent memory
-recollection an recall is stronger in the context in which it is learned
52
Mood-dependent memory
-tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood
53
State-dependent memory
-tendency to recall info better when in the same internal state as hen the info was encoded
54
Mnemonic devices
-memory tricks/strategies that make info easier to remember
55
Method of loci
- visualizes words in a list with familiar objects/locations
| - aids in memorization
56
Peg word system
-uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme
57
Acronyms
?
58
Retrieval failure
-when retrieval doesn't really work
59
Reconstruction
- retrieval that distrust incomplete memories
| - adds and/or changes info according to a personal schema
60
Confabulation
-combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are tying to recall
61
Misinformation effect
-incorporating misleading information into memories of a given event
62
Tip-of-the-tounge phenomenon
-temporary inability to access info accompanied by a feeling that the info is in LTM
63
Encoding failure
- inability to transform sensory info into STM or LTM
| - generally due to lack of attention
64
Forgetting
-inability to retrieve previously stored info due to failure to encode, decay of stored memories, and/or inability to access stored memories
65
Interference
-learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar
66
Proactive interference
-process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer ones
67
Retroactive interference
-process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories
68
Repression
-tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind
69
Anterograde amnesia
-inability to create new LTM due to damage to the hippocampus
70
Retrograde amnesia
-memory loss associated with a traumatic event
71
Intelligence
-the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
72
"G" factor
- theory developed by Charles Spearman
- postulated that all mental performances could be encapsulated into a single, general (g) ability factor and a large number of narrower, task-specific factors
73
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
- concepts developed by Raymond Cattell
- fluid involved ability to think in an abstract way (sometimes refers to ability to learn new ideas, sometimes involves creative thinking and problem-solving)
- crystallized intelligence involves acquired knowledge and experiential knowledge
74
Primary mental abilities
- concepts developed by L.L. Thurston
| - involves 7 factors which serve as measurements on some intelligence tests
75
Triarchic
- Theory of Intelligence formulated by Robert Sternberg
- takes a more adaptive approach to intelligence
- involves: analytical, creative, and practical
76
Analytical
-ability to analyze and problem solve
77
Creative
- ability to develop novel ideas
| - intuitive
78
Practical
- "street" smart
| - adaptive intelligence
79
Multiple intelligences
- developed by Howard Gardner
- humans possess different cognitive abilities, which underlie different notions of intelligence such as mathematical, linguistic, spatial, kinesthetic, music, interpersonal, or intrapersonal.
80
Mathematical
- logic
- abstraction
- reasoning
- computation
- critical thinking
81
Linguistic
- reading
- writing
- word memorization
- verbalizing
82
Spatial
- spatial judgment
| - mental visualization
83
Kinesthetic
- hand/eye coordination
| - muscle coordination
84
Musical
-sensitivity to sound, rhythm, tones, pitch, and timbre
85
Interpersonal
-interaction with others
86
Intrapersonal
- self-reflection
| - self-knowledge
87
Binet-Simon Scale
- one of the first intelligence tests
- developed by Alfred Binet in response to the French government's request to identify young children with learning disabilities
- collaborated with Theodore Simon
88
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test
- developed by Lewis Terman (Stanford professor of education)
- adapted Binet's Scale
- IQ = (ma/ca)100=?
89
Wechsler Scales (WAIS)
-for adults and children
90
Aptitude tests
-predicts capacity or potential to learn
91
Achievement tests
-measures what has been learned
92
Standardization
- administration and scoring of a test in a consistent or "standard" manner
- intended to ensure objectivity and reliability
93
Reliability
-the extent to which a test measures something consistently
94
Validity
-the extent to which a test measures what the test claims to measure
95
Face
- on the face of it
| - a test appears to measure a topic
96
Construct
-a test measures what is intended to be measured
97
Content
-a test measures what has been covered in the topic
98
Predictive/criterion
-a test positively correlates with future measurements
99
Convergent
-a measurement correlates with other measures as predicted
100
Metacognition
-thinking about how you think
101
trial and error
- repeatedly trying possible solutions
| - discarding the failures in order to arrive at the correct solution
102
Algorithm
- step-by-step procedure
| - guarantees a solution to certain problems
103
Heuristic
-a mental shortcut to simplify quickly or to solve a problem but does not guarantee a correct solution
104
insight learning
-a sudden appearance or awareness of a solution
105
Deductive reasoning
-reasoning from general to specific
106
Inductive reasoning
-reasoning from specific to general
107
incubation
- putting aside a problem temporarily
| - allows a look at the problem from a different perspective
108
brainstorming
- generating lots of possible solutions to a problem
| - often done in a group dynamic
109
divergent thinking
-thinking that produces many alternatives/ideas
110
convergent thinking
-problem-solving directed toward a single, correct solution
111
Mental sets
- barriers to problem solving
- when we apply only methods that have worked in the past
- lack of trying new methods
112
Functional fixedness
- inflexible thinking
| - for example, not being able to recognize new uses fro an object because the common use is so familiar
113
Availability heuristic
-tendency to estimate probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind
114
Representative heuristic
-tendency to judge likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype
115
Framing
- the way an issue is stated
| - can affect decisions an judgments
116
Anchoring effect
- tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point
| - pulls responses toward that point
117
Confirmation bias
- tendency to notice/seek info that already supports preconceptions
- to ignore info that refutes preconceived ideas
118
Belief perservance
-tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belied has been discredited
119
Belief bias
- tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
- makes illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid
120
Hindsight bias
-tendency to report falsely, after an event, that we correctly predicted the outcome
121
Overconfidence bias
-tendency to overestimate accuracy of beliefs/judgments
122
Language
communication system based on words/grammar; involves speaking, writing, gestures, body language, and facial expressions, in a variety of combinations, to communicate knowledge and meaning
123
Behavioral perspective
-language develops by imitating sounds
124
Nativist perspective
- humans have an innate capacity for acquiring language
| - children are born with a universal sense of grammar
125
Social interactivist perspective
- babies are biologically equipped for learning language
| - language acquisition may be enhanced, inhibited, or perverted by experience
126
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
- language guides and determines thinking
| - langauge influences thought
127
Babbling
- infant's spontaneous production of speech sounds
| - begins around 4 months
128
Phoneme
-smallest unit of sound in spokane language
129
Morpheme
-smallest unit of language that has meaning
130
Holophrase
-one-word utterances which convey meaning
131
Telegraphic speech
-utterance of a noun and a verb
132
Grammar
- system of rules for language
| - how words and sounds are combined to communicate
133
Overgeneralization
- literal application of grammatical rules
| - lacks understanding of exceptions to grammatical rules
134
Syntax
-the order by which words can be combined to communicate
135
Semantics
-concerns the meaning of a word, phrase, and sentences including context, implications, and relationship to other words
