Cognition_FlashcardsChapter02

Question 1

Term

Answer 1

Description

Question 2

Capgras syndrome

Answer 2

A relatively rare disorder, resulting from specific forms of brain damage, in which the afflicted person recognizes the people in his or her world but denies that they are who they appear to be. Instead, the person insists, these familiar individuals are well-disguised impostors. (page 30)

Question 3

Neuroimaging technique

Answer 3

A method for examining either the structure or the activation pattern within a living brain. (page 31)

Question 4

Amygdala

Answer 4

An almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that plays a central role in emotion and in the evaluation of stimuli. (page 31)

Question 5

Prefrontal cortex

Answer 5

The outer surface (cortex) of the frontmost part of the brain (i.e., the frontmost part of the frontal lobe). This brain area has many functions but is crucial for the planning of complex or novel behaviors, so this brain area is often mentioned as one of the main sites underlying the brain’s executive functions. (page 32)

Question 6

Hindbrain

Answer 6

One of the three main structures (along with the forebrain and the midbrain) of the brain; the hindbrain sits atop the spinal cord and includes several structures crucial for controlling key life functions. (page 35)

Question 7

Cerebellum

Answer 7

The largest area of the hindbrain, crucial for the coordination of bodily movements and balance. (page 36)

Question 8

Midbrain

Answer 8

One of the three main structures (along with the forebrain and the hindbrain) of the brain; the midbrain plays an important role in coordinating movements, and it contains structures that serve as ‘relay” stations for information arriving from the sensory organs. (page 36)

Question 9

Forebrain

Answer 9

One of the three main structures (along with the hindbrain and the midbrain) of the brain; the forebrain plays a crucial role in supporting intellectual functioning. (page 36)

Question 10

Cortex

Answer 10

The outermost surface of an organ in the body; psychologists are most commonly interested in the brain’s cortex. (page 36)

Question 11

Convolutions

Answer 11

The wrinkles visible in the cortex that allow the enormous surface area of the human brain to be stuffed into the relatively small volume of the skull. (page 37)

Question 12

Longitudinal fissure

Answer 12

The separation dividing the brain’s left cerebral hemisphere from the right. (page 37)

Question 13

Cerebral hemisphere

Answer 13

One of the two hemispherical brain structures – one on the left side, one on the right – that constitute the major part of the forebrain in mammals. (page 37)

Question 14

Frontal lobe

Answer 14

The lobe of the brain in each cerebral hemisphere that includes the prefrontal area and the primary motor projection area. (page 37)

Question 15

Central fissure

Answer 15

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the parietal lobes. (page 37)

Question 16

Parietal lobe

Answer 16

The lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the occipital and frontal lobes and includes some of the primary sensory projection areas, as well as circuits that are crucial for the control of attention. (page 37)

Question 17

Lateral fissure

Answer 17

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the temporal lobes. (page 37)

Question 18

Temporal lobe

Answer 18

The lobe of the cortex lying inward and down from the temples. The temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere includes the primary auditory projection area, Wernicke’s area, and, subcortically, the amygdala and hippocampus. (page 37)

Question 19

Occipital lobe

Answer 19

The rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere, and which includes the primary visual projection area. (page 37)

Question 20

Subcortical

Answer 20

Beneath the surface (i.e., beneath the cortex). (page 37)

Question 21

Thalamus

Answer 21

A part of the lower portion of the forebrain that serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information. (page 37)

Question 22

Hypothalamus

Answer 22

A small structure at the base of the forebrain that plays a vital role in the control of motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity. (page 37)

Question 23

Limbic system

Answer 23

A set of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus. The limbic system is believed to be involved in the control of emotional behavior and motivation, and it also plays a key role in learning and memory. (page 37)

Question 24

Hippocampus

Answer 24

A structure in the temporal lobe that is involved in the creation of long-term memories and spatial memory. (page 37)

Question 25

Commissure

Answer 25

One of the thick bundles of fibers via which information is sent back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres. (page 39)

Question 26

Corpus callosum

Answer 26

The largest of the commissures linking the left and right cerebral hemispheres. (page 39)

Question 27

Lesion

Answer 27

A specific area of tissue damage. (page 39)

Question 28

Computerized axial tomography (CT scanning)

Answer 28

A neuroimaging technique that uses X-rays to construct a precise three-dimensional image of the brain's anatomy. (page 40)

Question 29

Positron emission tomography (PET scanning)

Answer 29

A neuroimaging technique that determines how much glucose (the brain's fuel) is being used by specific areas of the brain at a particular moment in time. (page 40)

Question 30

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Answer 30

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of brain tissue. Like CT scans, MRI scans reveal the brain's anatomy, but they are much more precise than CT scans. (page 41)

Question 31

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Answer 31

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of the activity levels in different areas of the brain at a particular moment in time. (page 41)

Question 32

Electroencephalography

Answer 32

A recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath. (page 43)

Question 33

Event-related potential

Answer 33

Changes in an EEG in the brief period just before, during, and after an explicitly defined event, usually measured by averaging together many trials in which this event has occurred. (page 43)

Question 34

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Answer 34

A technique in which a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp causes temporary disruption in the brain region directly underneath this scalp area. (page 46)

Question 35

Localization of function

Answer 35

The research endeavor of determining what specific job is performed by a particular region of the brain. (page 46)

Question 36

Primary projection areas

Answer 36

Regions of the cortex that serve as the brain's receiving station for sensory information (sensory projection areas) or as a dispatching station for motor commands (motor projection areas). (page 48)

Question 37

Primary motor projection areas

Answer 37

The strip of tissue, located at the rear of the frontal lobe, that is the departure point for nerve cells that send their signals to lower portions of the brain and spinal cord, and which ultimately result in muscle movement. (page 48)

Question 38

Primary sensory projection areas

Answer 38

The main points of arrival in the cortex for information arriving from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs. (page 48)

Question 39

Contralateral control

Answer 39

A pattern in which the left half of the brain controls the right half of the body, and the right half of the brain controls the left half of the body. (page 48)

Question 40

Association cortex

Answer 40

The traditional name for the portion of the human cortex outside of the motor and sensory projection areas. (page 51)

Question 41

Apraxia

Answer 41

A disturbance in the capacity to initiate or organize voluntary action, often caused by brain damage. (page 51)

Question 42

Agnosia

Answer 42

A disturbance in a person's ability to identify familiar objects. (page 51)

Question 43

Neglect syndrome

Answer 43

See unilateral neglect syndrome. (page 51)

Question 44

Aphasia

Answer 44

A disruption to language capacities, often caused by brain damage. (page 51)

Question 45

Neuron

Answer 45

An individual cell within the nervous system. (page 52)

Question 46

Glia

Answer 46

A type of cell found (along with neurons) in the central nervous system. Glial cells have many functions, including the support of neurons, the repair of neural connections in case of damage, and a key role in guiding the initial development of neural connections. A specialized type of glia also provide electrical insulation for some neurons, allowing much faster transmission of neural signals. (page 52)

Question 47

Cell body

Answer 47

The area of a biological cell containing the nucleus and the metabolic machinery that sustains the cell. (page 52)

Question 48

Dendrites

Answer 48

The part of a neuron that usually detects the incoming signal. (page 52)

Question 49

Axon

Answer 49

The part of a neuron that typically transmits a signal away from the neuron's cell body and carries the signal to another location. (page 52)

Question 50

Neurotransmitter

Answer 50

One of the chemicals released by neurons in order to stimulate adjacent neurons. See also synapse. (page 52)

Question 51

Synapse

Answer 51

The area that includes the presynaptic membrane of one neuron, the postsynaptic membrane of another neuron, and the tiny gap between them. The presynaptic membrane releases a small amount of neurotransmitter that drifts across the gap and stimulates the postsynaptic membrane. (page 55)

Question 52

Threshold

Answer 52

The activity level at which a cell or detector responds, or fires. (page 55)

Question 53

Fire

Answer 53

To respond in a discrete and specific way -- as when a neuron, after receiving a strong enough stimulus, sends a signal down its axon, which in turn causes a release of neurotransmitter from the membrane at the end of the axon. (page 55)

Question 54

Action potential

Answer 54

A brief change in the electrical potential of an axon. The action potential is the physical basis of the signal sent from one end of a neuron to the other and usually triggers a further (chemical) signal to other neurons. (page 55)

Question 55

All-or-none law

Answer 55

The principle stating that a neuron or detector either fires completely or does not fire at all; no intermediate responses are possible. (Graded responses are possible, however, by virtue of the fact that a neuron or detector can fire more or less frequently, and for a longer or shorter time.) (page 55)

Question 56

Cornea

Answer 56

The transparent tissue at the front of each eye that plays an important role in focusing the incoming light. (page 56)

Question 57

Lens

Answer 57

The transparent tissue located near the front of each eye that (together with the cornea) plays an important role in focusing the incoming light. Muscles control the degree of curvature of the lens, allowing the eye to form a sharp image on the retina. (page 56)

Question 58

Retina

Answer 58

The light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball. (page 56)

Question 59

Photoreceptor

Answer 59

A cell on the retina that responds directly to the incoming light; photoreceptors are of two kinds: rods and cones. (page 56)

Question 60

Rod

Answer 60

A photoreceptor that is sensitive to very low light levels but that is unable to discriminate hues and that has relatively poor acuity. Often contrasted with cone. (page 56)

Question 61

Cone

Answer 61

A photoreceptor that is able to discriminate hues and that has high acuity. Cones are concentrated in the retina's fovea and become less frequent in the visual periphery. Often contrasted with rod. (page 57)

Question 62

Acuity

Answer 62

The ability to discern fine detail. See also visual acuity. (page 58)

Question 63

Fovea

Answer 63

The center of the retina and the region on the eye in which acuity is best; when you look at an object, you are lining up that object with the fovea. (page 58)

Question 64

Bipolar cell

Answer 64

A type of neuron in the eye. Bipolar cells receive their input from the photoreceptors and transmit their output to the retinal ganglion cells. (page 58)

Question 65

Ganglion cell

Answer 65

A type of neuron in the eye. The ganglion cells receive their input from the bipolar cells, and then the axons of the ganglion cells gather together to form the optic nerve, carrying information back to the lateral geniculate nucleus. (page 58)

Question 66

Optic nerve

Answer 66

The bundle of nerve fibers, formed from the retina's ganglion cells, that carries information from the eyeball to the brain. (page 58)

Question 67

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Answer 67

An important way station in the thalamus that is the first destination for visual information sent from the eyeball to the brain. (page 59)

Question 68

Lateral inhibition

Answer 68

A pattern in which cells, when stimulated, inhibit the activity of neighboring cells. In the visual system, lateral inhibition in the optic nerve creates edge enhancement. (page 59)

Question 69

Edge enhancement

Answer 69

A process created by lateral inhibition in which the neurons in the visual system give exaggerated responses to edges of surfaces. (page 60)

Question 70

Single-cell recording

Answer 70

A technique for recording the moment-by-moment activation level of an individual neuron within a healthy, normally functioning brain. (page 60)

Question 71

Receptive field

Answer 71

The portion of the visual field to which a cell within the visual system responds. If the appropriately shaped stimulus appears in the appropriate position, the cell's firing rate will change. The firing rate will not change if the stimulus is of the wrong form or is in the wrong position. (page 61)

Question 72

Center-surround cell

Answer 72

A neuron in the visual system that has a 'donut-shaped” receptive field; stimulation in the center of the receptive field has one effect on the cell; stimulation in the surrounding ring has the opposite effect. (page 62)

Question 73

Area V1

Answer 73

The site on the occipital lobe where axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus first reach the cerebral cortex. This site is (for one neural pathway) the location at which information about the visual world first reaches the brain. (page 64)

Question 74

Parallel processing

Answer 74

A system in which many steps are going on at the same time. Usually contrasted with serial processing. (page 65)

Question 75

Serial processing

Answer 75

A system in which only one step happens at a time (and so the steps go on in a series). Usually contrasted with parallel processing. (page 66)

Question 76

P cells

Answer 76

Specialized cells within the optic nerve that provide the input for the parvocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus. Often contrasted with M cells. (page 66)

Question 77

M cells

Answer 77

Specialized cells within the optic nerve that provide the input for the magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus. Often contrasted with P cells. (page 66)

Question 78

Parvocellular cells

Answer 78

Cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus specialized for the perception of patterns. Often contrasted with magnocellular cells. (page 66)

Question 79

Magnocellular cells

Answer 79

Cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus specialized for the perception of motion and depth. Often contrasted with parvocellular cells. (page 66)

Question 80

What system

Answer 80

The system of visual circuits and pathways leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe and especially involved in object recognition. Often contrasted with the where system. (page 66)

Question 81

Where system

Answer 81

The system of visual circuits and pathways leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe and especially involved in the spatial localization of objects and in the coordination of movements. Often contrasted with the what system. (page 67)

Question 82

Binding problem

Answer 82

The problem of reuniting the various elements of a scene, given the fact that these elements are initially dealt with by different systems in the brain. (page 68)

Question 83

Neural synchrony

Answer 83

A pattern of firing by neurons in which neurons in one brain area fire at the same time as neurons in another area; the brain seems to use this pattern as an indication that the neurons in different areas are firing in response to the same stimulus. (page 69)

Question 84

Conjunction error

Answer 84

An error in perception in which someone correctly perceives what features are present but misperceives how the features are joined, so that (for example) a red circle and a green square might be misperceived as a red square and a green circle. (page 70)