Cognitive 2 Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
What is language
A
an arbitrary set of symbols and rules for combining symbols used to create an infinite variety of messages
2
Q
what are the 13 design features of language (Hockett)
A
Vocal Auditory Channel
Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception
Rapid Fading Transitoriness
Interchangeability
Total Feedback
Specialisation
Semanticity
Arbitrariness
Discreteness
Displacement
Productivity
Traditional Transmission
Duality of Patterning
3
Q
What is Vocal Auditory Channel
A
All human languages are transmitted usually through vocal auditory channels
4
Q
What are the advantages of vocal auditory channel
A
do not have to see people to communicate
carries great distances
frees up your hands
5
Q
Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception
A
sounds produced in all directions when speaking - perceiver can localise source of speech and attribute sound to a being
6
Q
rapid fading transitoriness
A
speech disappears when talking stops
language attributed to sounds stop existing
7
Q
interchangeability
A
competent users of language can repeat messages they hear and understand their own messages
8
Q
total feedback
A
speakers can hear everything that they say
online tracking of our messages
9
Q
specialisation
A
sounds we produce are designed to convey meaning
not a biological outcome of another activity
10
Q
semanticity
A
ties between the word and its meaning to define
sounds denote specific messages
11
Q
arbitrariness
A
words are arbitrary and decided by agreement
words are not representative
12
Q
discreteness
A
linguistic representations can be broken down into small discrete units which combine with each other in other rule-governed ways
ie prefix, suffix
13
Q
displacement
A
can talk about things not in the immediate vicinity
14
Q
productivity
A
language isn’t stagnant, new novel words developed all the time
15
Q
traditional transmission
A
language acquired through social groups, teaching through social interaction
16
Q
duality of patterning
A
speech analysed on two levels
- made of meaningless element
-made up of meaningful element
17
Q
how do dolphins communicate
A
high pitched whistles and clicks
18
Q
how do we link words to meanings
A
form -> semantics
19
Q
syntax?
A
understand rules that subtly alter meaning of a phrase
grammar, word order + phrase structure
20
Q
morphology?
A
specific combinations of sounds carry meaning
21
Q
pragmatics
A
use of language to convey meaning via the way we choose to speak
language in context
22
Q
Speaking + writing
A
production
23
Q
reading + understanding
A
comprehension
24
Q
are language production and comprehension distinct processes
A
yes
25
what are semantics
meaning / concept
to express the right concept, the semantic representation has to link form and syntax
26
what is the smallest meaningful unit of sound
morpheme
27
what are examples of morphemes
suffix, prefix, infix
28
what is the sound system called
phonology
29
what are phonemes
sounds, roughly 40 in english
30
what is orthography
the writing system
31
what are graphemes
visual representation of phoneme,
letters
32
What is Grice's maxim
understanding when a person has violated a maxim allows us to interpret meaning within the meaning
33
What aspects are in Grice's maxim
Quantity - no more than neccesary
Quality - truthful
Relation - relevant
Manner - avoid ambiguity
34
Why do we hesitate when speaking
spreading activation in the mental lexicon - related words are activated in our mental lexicon
35
what is competition in relation to language production
activated words in our mental lexicon compete for selection
36
what is a speech error
when you know what to say but retrieve the wrong word to say it
37
what slips of the tongue categories are there
words
morphemes
phonemes
concept
38
An example of word speech error
prongs of a fork -> forks of a prong
39
example of morpheme speech error
sliced thinly = slicly thinned
40
example of phoneme error
York Library = Lork Yibrary
41
example of a concept error
spoon + fork = spork
42
what are the levels of processing
conceptualisation
formulation
articulation
43
at what level do the speech errors occur in levels of processing
conceptualisation -> semantic blend errors (concept)
formulation -> syntactic and morpheme exchange
articulation -> words and phoneme exchange
44
What is 'tip of the tongue'
a state where you know what word you want to say but have trouble retrieving the word to say it
45
what does tip of the tongue state imply
means syntax and form are processed separately
46
what can block a word from retrieval
activation and competition
activation of related info can interfere with access of target info
47
What does speech production require
concepts to be activated
morphological elelments added
words articulated
48
what is ambiguity in the speech stream
where you do not know where the word boundaries are
don't know where one word ends and another starts
49
what is ambiguity at the word level
words that sound the same but have different meanings
50
what is a homonym
words that sound and are spelt the same
51
homophone?
words that sound the same but spelt differently
52
what is ambiguity at the phoneme level
words that change the way they sound depending on environmentw
53
what is categorical perception of sound
it helps work out where one sound ends and another starts
54
what is coarticulation
sounds can become blurred or blended when articulated
phonemes sound changes depending on sound produced before or after
55
what is voice onset time
VOT is defined by the point at which vocal chord vibrations start relative to the release of closure
56
what is the invariance problem
inability to define the acoustic properties that facilitate categorisation of phonemes
57
what is top down processing in language comprehension
activation of existing lexical mental presentations of words stored in our lexicon
58
lexical access is faster for
words that are short and frequent
words with fewer neighbours
59
what is loexical access facilitated by
frequency,
neighbourhood density
competition between related items based on spreading activation
60
What are the two models that show how we process of lexical access
Cohort Model
TRACE model
61
what is word monitoring
where the language system predicts which words might come up next and activates them in lexicon
It helps activate potential word candidates but doesn't facilitate selection of word
62
what does word monitoring imply
we use context to activate lexical candidates that fit the context of a sentence,
63
what is the priming paradigm
where spreading activation allows words to be primed -
ie. doctor and nurse are semantically related which allows nurse to become active when doctor is presented
64
what is cross modal priming
priming an auditory, when the target is visual
65
What are the three primary processes of memory
encode
store
retrieve
66
what do we encode
stimuli, sights, sounds, smells
information that enters our memory system may slip away
67
what do we store in our memory
representations
information is preserved for recollection in the future or is forgotten
68
what do we retrieve
memories, events, facts, skills
info is recollected or sits on the tip of yourr tongue
69
what is anterograde amnesia
lacks ability to form new memories
cannot recall aspects of held memories
70
what is the modal model of memory sequence
Input
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
71
how is memory stored in the modal model of memory
by time
72
what is iconic memory
visual memory
73
what is echoic memory
auditory memory
74
how long is the duration of short term memory
short duration - 30-60s
75
what is the capacity of Short term memory
5-9 info elements, boosted by active rehearsal and chunking
76
When does sensory memory move to short term memory
when we pay attention to information
77
what is the duration and capacity of long term memory
unlimited but not perfect
78
How else can memory be stored
by content - facts, events, skills
79
what is declarative long term memory
explicit
memories that you are aware of and can express
80
what is episodic memory
episodes that you remember, includes contextual info like when and where
81
what is semantic memory
general facts about the world that you know
82
what is non declarative long term memory
implicit
memories that are difficult to bring to awareness and express
83
what is procedural memory
skills, habits
84
what is implicit memory
conditioning, priming
85
what are memory processes
encoding, storage and retrieval
86
what are memory systems
taxonomies categorising memories
87
what is working memory
a concept that combines both memory processes and memory systems
88
how does working memory process information
dynamic system that process and manipulates data in the short term memory
89
what is the capacity of the working memory
shorter capacity - 3s
90
what is the capacity of working memory
3-5 info elements
91
what is the multicomponent model of baddeley & hitch
a hierarchal organisation
central executive
visuospatial sketchpad
episodic buffer
phonological loop
long term memory
92
what is central executive
the coordination of storage systems and control of attention to stimuli
93
what is the visuospatial sketchpad
storage of visuospatial info
94
what is the phonological loop
separate storage of auditory info
95
what is word length effect
we can remember the number of words that we can articulate in 2 seconds
if we can't reheassse in 2 seconds, words decay
96
what is episodic buffer
binding of multimodal info to form episodic memories
97
what is an engram
neural representation of a memory, memory trace
98
what is the frontal cortex involved in (memory)
coordination of info,
WM
99
what is the temporal cortex involved in (memory)
spatial / episodic memory storage
100
what is the amygdala involved in (memory)
implicit and emotional memory information
101
what is the hippocampus involved in (memory)
explicit memory formation
102
what is the cerebellum involved in (memory)
implicit memory formation
103
what is are the other parts of the cortex involved in (memory)
distributed memory storage
104
what is chronesthesia
mental time travel, reconstructing memories of past events
105
what does chronesthesia allow for
reconstructing memories of personal past events and their context
106
what is reminiscence bump
superior memory for events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood
107
what are flashbulb memories
emotionally significant or shocking
108
what is photographic memory
superior autobiographical memory or highly SAM
109
what is a direct memory test
instructed encoding (being told to memorise info) leading to explicit retrieval
110
what is free recall
recall as many items as possible
111
what is serial recall
recall items in order of their presentation
112
what is cued recall
recall items with the help of a cue
113
what is recognition
verify whether info presented matches memory
114
what is an indirect memory test
where incidental encoding leads to implicit retrieval
115
what is the effects on encoding on levels of processing
from shallow to deep
structural -> phonemic -> category
deeper processing at encoding can aid memory
116
what is the spacing effect
the longer the spacing, the better the memory
116
what is massed practice
a single, lengthy study period
116
What is the testing effect
retrieval practice improves memory for delays longer than a few minutes
116
what is distributed practice
multiple shorter study periods
116
what is the serial position curve
where information encoded first or last in a list is recalled best
117
which type of practice is better
generally, distributed practice is better
117
what is encoding specificity principle
matching context at encoding and retrieval aids episodic memory
118
what is transfer appropriate processing
matching processing at encoding and retrieval aids episodic memory
119
How to improve memory
think critically about learning materials and question your understanding - levels of processing
learn in shorter but frequent sessions - spacing effect
test your knowledge frequently - testing effect
exam similar conditions - encoding specificity, transfer appropriate processing
vary learning context to reduce undesirable effects of order - serial position effect
120
what is the hierarchical network model
concept representations can be accessed through spreading activation between nodes via their connecting paths
121
what are the levels in the hierarchical network model
superordinate level
basic level
subordinate level
122
what is semantic dementia
syndrome of progressive deterioration in semantic memory leading to loss of knowledge about objects, people, concepts and words
123
what is the classical theory of categorisation
categories defined by necessary and sufficient features
124
what is semantic memory
helps us form representations of categories based on regularities in the world
125
what are the criticisms of classical theory of categorisation
family resemblance
central tendency -
graded membership -
126
what are ways we can measure categorisation
typicality ratings
exemplar production
category membership verification
127
family resemblance
diff members of a category can share different features
128
central tendency
categories exhibit an averaged ideal
129
graded membership
some members are more typical for a category
130
What is typicality ratings
ranking 'chairs' from being best to worst example of a 'chair'
131
what are exemplar production
recall as many pieces of furniture as you can
132
what is category membership verification
is this an example of the category
133
what is exemplar theory
where categories consist of separate representations of the physical features of experienced examples of the category
134
what is the prototype theory
where categories are determined by a mental representation that is weighted average of all category members
135
what are criticisms of prototype theory
can't explain how people can tell the sizes of categories or how to add new members to a category
136
what are the criticisms of exemplar theory
theoretical circularity - people can't retrieve all category members to define a category if retrieval is based on category membership
people can't form abstract categories of things without physical features
137
what is explanation based theory
categories are based on common causal characteristics rather than physical features
categories can be created add hoc using world knowledge and explanations
138
what is schemata
semantic memory enables us to form schemata that capture commonly encountered aspects of life - thought of as an explanation based event categories
139
what is a script
temporally ordered schemata
captures order of events for common aspects of life
140
what are the five primary schema processes
selection
abstraction
interpretation
integration
reconstruction
141
what is selection - five primary schema processes
selection of information central to a schema
142
what is abstraction
surface form of info is converted to a more abstract representation that captures the meaning but is schema-consistent
143
what is interpretation
interpretation is used to fill gaps in a story with schema-consistent information
144
what is integration
integration of info is used to form schema-consistent holistic representations
145
what is reconstruction - five primary schema processes
details reconstructed to be simplified and fit cultural schema
146
schema processes affect
encoding and retrieval of info
147
what are the seven sins of memory
transience
absentmindedness
blocking
misattribution
suggestibility
bias
persistence
148
what is transience
decreasing accessibility of memories over time
149
what is decay
forgetting due to passsage of time
150
what is law of disuse
as more time elapses without using a memory, the more memory decays until it is entirely forgottenw
151
what is interference
forgetting due to competition between memories
152
what is proactive interference
where older memories impair retrieval of new
153
what is retroactive interference
where new memories impair retrieval of old
154
what is absentmindedness
lapse of attention that affects memory and learning
155
What did Kane et al. 2017 study prove
the more off-task mind wandering, the poorer the learning from a lecture
156
what is blocking
where information is present but temporarily inaccessible
157
what is misattribution
attributing memories to an incorrect source
158
what is internal source monitoring
did i do this or did i just imagine it
159
what is external source monitoring
who told me about this
160
what is cryptomnesia
unconscious plagiarism
161
what types of source information are there
perceptual
contextual
affective
cognitive
162
what is perceptual information
perceptual detail often higher for memories actually experienced than from other sources
163
what is contextual source information
context in which memory was acquired is consistent with an expected source
164
what is affective source informqtion
emotional reaction in context of info
165
what is cognitive source information
mental processing of the info
166
What is Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm
where semantically related words may be included in recall
false memories -> remembering things that never happened
167
what is suggestibility
implanted memories that never occurred
168
what is the misinformation effect
altering memories to conform to recently encountered but incorrect info
169
what is bias (memory)
distorting memories of the past based on current knowledge and beliefs
170
what is hindsight bias
where you misremember memories being more similar to the current knowledge state
171
what is persistence
unwanted recollections that can't be forgotten
172
what is retrograde amnesia
loss of ability to access memories prior to event
173
why is it important to study learning
understand foundations of learning,
development of habits
drug use and misuse
AI and robotics
fundamental types of learning a similar across species
174
what is classical conditioning
stimulus response associations
also known as pavlovian conditioning
where US + CS are paired
US elicits an unconditioned response
175
what is operant conditioning
action outcome associations
instrumental conditioning
176
what is aversive conditioning
US can be aversive
temporal correlation as a proxy for causation
177
what are common paradigms for aversive conditioning
eye blink conditioning, tail pinching, electrical shocks
178
what is extinction
how strong / persistent are the associations formed during conditioning
179
what is the extinction paradigm
removing unconditioned stimulus and present only conditioned stimulus
180
what is spontaneous recovery
when the inhibitory association becomes weaker (prevents response) excitatory association becomes more persistent (reinforce response)
181
what is generalisation
ability to also respond with the conditioned response to the new stimulus which resembles the original conditioned stimulus
182
what is discrimination
ability to not respond to the new stimulus
allows us to detect important differences
183
what is second order conditioning
CS 1 can serve as an unconditioned stimuli to further conditioning of another stimuli to trigger a chain
184
what is a trial
a single presentation of a CS-US sequence
185
what is a block
several trials, usually with specific parameters
reward probability
186
what is a session
consist of one or more blocks
187
what is partial reinforcement
interspersed trials where the CS is not followed by the US
slows down acquisition and extinction learning
188
what is trace conditioning
memory trace required to bridge the time gap between CS and US
189
what is thorndike law of effect
responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation is more likely to occur again
responses that produce a typically unpleasant outcome are less likely to happen again
190
What changes for the US in operant conditioning
it depends on the behaviour of an animal and goes beyond hard-wired unconditioned responses and incorporates more complex behaviour
191
what is a reinforcer
an event that increases the likelihood of the action
192
what is a punisher
an event that decreases the likelihood of the action
193
what are the effects of reinforcement
it increases behaviour
more likely to result in long term changes in behaviour
194
what are the effects of punishment
decreases behaviour
creates negative relationship
when person providing punishment leaves, unwanted behaviour returns
195
which is more beneficial - reinforcement or punishment
reinforcement beneficial then punishment
196
what reinforcement schedules are there
partial reinforcement
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
197
what is partial reinforcement - reinforcement schedules
different reinforcement schedules
198
what is fixed ratio
behaviour reinforced after a specific number of responses
continual reinforcement
199
what is variable ratio
behaviour reinforced after a specific number of responses
responding reinforcement after a randomly determined number of responses emitted
200
what is fixed interval
behaviour reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time has passed
201
what is variable interval
behaviour is reinforced for the first response after an average but unpredictable amount of time has passed
no PRP
202
what is shaping
process of guiding behaviour to the desired outcome through the use of intermediate stages
203
what are conditioned reinforcers
decrease delays between behaviour and delivery of primary reinforcers
204
what are secondary reinforcers
previously a reinforcer after being paired with other people
205
what is effect of reward magnitude
different keys to receive a large or small reward
big rewards lead to faster learning across sessions
206
what is the neural basis of classical conditioning
dopamine
207
what are examples of cognitive control
inhibition, flexibility, multitasking
208
what is cognition
basis for intelligent behaviour
it can override reflexive habitual response in favour of complex long term goals
209
What type of processing does executive function use
top down mental processes
often requires effort or attention
210
what are the core cognitive abilities
working memory
inhibitory control
flexibility
211
what are insight related cognitive abilities
object permanence
self recognition
mental time travel
theory of mind
tool use / causal reasoning
212
what is inhibitory control
change and choose how to behave and react
213
what are the types of inhibitory control of attention
cocktail party effect
top down vs bottom up
exogenous / endogenous
214
what is self control
discipline to stay on task despite distractions
215
what happens when we fail to inhibit control
saying things without thinking
216
what is cognitive inhibition
ability to inhibit unwanted or unproductive thoughts
217
what lobe is involved in inhibition
frontal lobe
218
what is directed inhibition
don't do it
219
what is competitive inhibition
many actions competing and inhibiting one another
220
what is cognitive flexibility
allows us to change perspectives - visually, spatially, interpersonally
relies on inhibition of info, leading new info into WM
221
what is the wisconsin card sorting test used for
used to examine cognitive impairment in patients with neurological damage
222
what tests to use for inhibition
stop signal task
go no go task
marshmallow task
223
what test for cognitive flexibility
design fluency
wisconsin card sorting task
224
what is cognitive flexibility ??
flexibility in approach and perspective
adapting to new rules
