Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Cognitive approach

Answer 1

The idea that humans conduct mental processes on incoming information, i.e. human cognition, came to the fore of psychological thought during the mid-twentieth century, overlooking the stimulus-response focus of the behaviourist approach. A dominant cognitive approach evolved, advocating that sensory information is manipulated internally prior to responses made, influenced by, for instance, our motivations and beliefs. Introspection - a subjective method predominantly used by philosophical and psychodynamic approaches - was rejected in favour of experimental methodology to study internal processes scientifically.

Question 2

The cognitive approach assumes:

Answer 2

1) Psychology should be the study of internal mental processes, e.g., memory, attention, perception.
2) The mind actively processes information from our senses.
3) Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, that can and should be studied scientifically.
4) Humans can be seen as data processing systems.
5) The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike - they encode, store information, and they have outputs.

Question 3

Cognitive approach main components:

Answer 3

1) Theoretical and Computer models
2) Schema
3) Emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Question 4

1) Theoretical and Computer models

Answer 4

• Cognitive psychologists use both theoretical and computer models to help them comprehend how internal mental processes work.
• In reality, there are overlaps between these two models, but theoretical models are abstract concepts whereas computer models refer to concrete ideas.
• The ‘information processing approach’ is primarily a theoretical model, though it incorporates computational elements.
• It suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model of memory.
• It is based on the way that computers function, however a computer model would involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. If they do, we can suggest that similar processes are occurring in the human mind.
• Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or artificial intelligence.
• Theoretical models are visual representations of internal mental processes that are used to help researchers simplify and study complex mental processes.
• Theoretical models are typically diagrams or flowcharts that show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it. For example, the multi-store model is a theoretical model of memory.

Question 5

2) Schema

Answer 5

• Cognitive processing can often be affected by an individual’s beliefs or expectations, often referred to as ‘schema’.
• Schema are packages of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.
• Schema enables us to process lots of information quickly, which is useful as a mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
• They provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time.
• Furthermore, they allow us to make sense of ambiguous situations by ‘filling in the gaps’ in our knowledge, allowing us to act comfortably even when our information is lacking, making it easier to deal with complex situations.
• However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors. An example is if a person’s expectations do not match up with the reality of what they have experienced.
• Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours, such as sucking and grasping. For example, the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hand around the object in coordination with visual input.
• As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated.
• Adults have developed mental representations for almost everything.

Question 6

3) Emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 6

• Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on internal mental processes.
• Mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology.
• As early as the 1860s, Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (which later came to be known as Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production.
• It is only in the last 20 years, however, with advances in brain imaging and scanning techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
• For example, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory, Tulving et al. were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. As well as this, the system in charge of working memory - the central executive - is thought to reside in a similar area.
• Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders.
• For example, the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD is discussed and it appears to play a role in processing unpleasant information.
• The focus of cognitive neuroscience has recently expanded to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain. This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques, known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.
• One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court.

Question 7

Strength

Answer 7

Point: A major strength of the cognitive approach is its use of scientific and objective methods to study internal mental processes.

Evidence: Cognitive psychologists frequently use highly controlled laboratory experiments and advanced neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, to investigate how people process, store and retrieve information. These tools allow researchers to observe brain activity in real time and isolate specific mental functions like memory and attention.

Justification: This scientific approach enables researchers to obtain empirical, quantifiable and replicable data. The ability to measure mental processes in a structured way also helps develop precise cognitive models, including the multi-store model of memory, enhancing our understanding of how the mind operates. This contrasts with earlier psychological approaches like introspection, which lacked scientific rigour.

Implication: Therefore, the cognitive approach has played a key role in establishing psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Its findings are not only theoretically sound but also have real-world applications in areas like artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive therapy.

Counterargument: While the methods are scientific, many of the experiments are artificial and lack ecological validity.

Evidence: Tasks used in cognitive research, such as recalling word lists in a lab setting, do not always reflect how memory processes operate in everyday life. For example, remembering a list of unrelated words is quite different from remembering meaningful personal experiences.

Justification: Because these experiments are often conducted in controlled, artificial environments, they may fail to capture the complexity and richness of real-world cognition. This limits the extent to which the findings can be generalised to how people actually think and behave in natural settings.

Implication: As a result, even though the cognitive approach is scientifically rigorous, its reliance on artificial tasks may reduce the external validity of its conclusions. To address this, future research should aim to balance experimental control with ecological realism.

Counterargument: Despite concerns about ecological validity, the cognitive approach has led to numerous successful and meaningful real-world applications.

Evidence: Findings from cognitive psychology have been adopted into treatments for psychological disorders, for example CBT, which is based heavily on cognitive principles. Additionally, they have been applied to improve eyewitness testimony through the development of the Cognitive Interview. Such findings have also been influential in cognitive neuroscience advancements, contributing in the development of treatment for brain injuries and degenerative conditions.

Justification: This demonstrates that even though many cognitive studies are conducted in artificial settings, the theories and models derived from them have effectively transitioned to real-life settings and drastically revolutionise how we live in the future. This approach provides a solid framework for establishing practical interventions and building technology.

Implication: This draws attention to the practicality and versatility of the cognitive approach. Its ability to inform evidence-based practices outweighs the limitations of experimental realism, making it an impactful area of psychological research.

Question 8

Weakness

Answer 8

Point: However, the cognitive approach has been criticised for its machine reductionism.

Evidence: The approach often compares the human mind to a computer, suggesting that information is input, processed and output in a similar way. While there are clear parallels between human cognition and computational functions, this analogy oversimplifies human cognition, overlooking the influence of emotions, motivation and consciousness. For example, studies show that anxiety can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies with witnesses in Yuille and Cutshall’s study identifying the suspect 49% of the time in the condition where they were holding a pen compared to 33% in the condition where the suspect was holding a knife, demonstrating that memory is reconstructive and subject to distortion as a result of emotions (i.e. anxiety), unlike in computers.

Justification: This suggests that the cognitive approach neglects important influences on behaviour, e.g., emotional. Reducing the mind to mechanical processes underestimates the complexity and adaptability of human thought.

Implication: This limits the explanatory power and real-world application of the approach, especially in emotionally charged contexts such as eyewitness testimony, where human cognition cannot be fully understood using a computer-based model.

Further point: In addition to limiting explanatory power, machine reductionism may also restrict the development of personalised therapeutic interventions.

Evidence: If cognitive models ignore emotional and motivational influences, therapies based on these models, such as CBT, might fail to address the root causes of certain mental health issues, especially those with strong emotional components, like trauma.

Justification: This makes interventions less effective for individuals whose behaviours are strongly influenced by non-cognitive factors, such as past emotional experiences or interpersonal dynamics.

Implication: As a result, the mechanistic view of cognition could lead to one-size-fits-all approaches that don’t account for the emotional and social aspects of human psychology, limiting therapeutic success in complex, real-life contexts.