Cognitive psychology Flashcards
(13 cards)
Memory & Its Processes
Memory Has Three Key Stages: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Encoding: Transforming incoming sensory information into a form the brain can store (visual, acoustic, or semantic).
Storage: Retaining information over time, either in short-term memory (STM) or long-term memory (LTM).
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed. Forgetting can occur if retrieval cues are weak or the memory trace has faded.
Encoding: Transforming Sensory Input into Memory
Visual Encoding: Storing information as images. (E.g., remembering a face but not a name.)
Acoustic Encoding: Storing information based on sound. (E.g., remembering a phone number by repeating it aloud.)
Semantic Encoding: Storing information by meaning. (E.g., recalling facts about a subject by associating them with previous knowledge.)
STM relies on acoustic encoding, while LTM encodes information semantically for deeper retention.
Storage: Holding Information in STM and LTM
Short-Term Memory (STM): Stores 5-9 pieces of information (Miller’s “Magic Number 7 ± 2”) for 0-30 seconds. Capacity can be increased through chunking (grouping items into meaningful units, like phone numbers).
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Has unlimited capacity and stores information for a lifetime. LTM is strengthened by repetition, emotional significance, and meaningful connections.
George A. Miller- STM Capacity & Chunking
Proposed the “7 ± 2” rule for short-term memory capacity (Miller, 1956)
Introduced the concept of “chunking,” which involves grouping information into meaningful units to expand STM capacity
His work laid the groundwork for understanding how we encode and store information in short-term memory.
Retrieval: Accessing Information from Memory
STM retrieval is sequential (going through items one by one).
LTM retrieval is based on associations (e.g., remembering why you walked into a room by returning to where you had the thought).
Organising information alphabetically, by size, or by time can improve retrieval.
Cognitive Therapy- Aaron Beck
Cognitive Therapy Helps Change Negative Thought Patterns
Developed by Aaron Beck in the 1960s, cognitive therapy suggests that psychological distress results from distorted thinking patterns. By identifying and challenging these thoughts, individuals can change their emotions and behaviours.
Key Steps in CBT:
1️⃣ Identifying Distorted Thoughts → Recognizing automatic negative thoughts that lead to distress.
2️⃣ Challenging & Replacing Irrational Beliefs → Finding evidence against negative thoughts and replacing them with more rational alternatives.
3️⃣ Behavioral Experiments & Exposure → Testing new ways of thinking in real-life situations (e.g., gradually facing social fears).
4️⃣ Homework Assignments → Keeping thought diaries, practicing relaxation techniques, or engaging in feared activities.
Albert Ellis & Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
Ellis’s ABC Model Explains How Thoughts Affect Emotions
A – Activating Event: A situation or event that triggers a thought (e.g., failing a test).
B – Belief: The interpretation of the event (e.g., “I’m a failure, I’ll never succeed”).
C – Consequence: The emotional response (e.g., feeling hopeless and avoiding future tests).
D – Dispute: Challenging irrational beliefs (e.g., “One bad test doesn’t define my intelligence”).
E – Effect: Developing rational beliefs and healthier responses (e.g., “I can improve with practice”).
F – Feeling: Experiencing more balanced and positive emotions.
Irrational Beliefs Lead to Psychological Distress
Ellis argued that people create unnecessary suffering by holding rigid, unrealistic expectations, such as:
“I must be perfect at everything.”
“It’s a disaster if things don’t go my way.”
“I need everyone’s approval to be happy.”
REBT helps individuals challenge and replace these irrational beliefs with logical, adaptive thoughts.
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy & The Cognitive Triad
Aaron Beck Identified Negative Thinking Patterns in Depression
Beck proposed that depression stems from three types of negative thoughts, known as the Cognitive Triad:
1️⃣ Negative View of Self → “I am worthless.”
2️⃣ Negative View of the World → “Everyone is against me.”
3️⃣ Negative View of the Future → “Things will never get better.”
🔄 Automatic Negative Thoughts (ANTs) Maintain Depression
Beck found that depressed individuals have recurring automatic negative thoughts. These thoughts are often irrational but feel like undeniable truths.
Cognitive Distortions That Contribute to Depression:
All-or-Nothing Thinking → Viewing things as only good or bad, with no middle ground.
Selective Abstraction → Focusing only on the negatives while ignoring positives.
Magnification & Minimization → Exaggerating problems while downplaying achievements.
Overgeneralization → Making broad negative conclusions from a single event.
Personalization → Blaming oneself for things outside one’s control.
🔍 Cognitive Therapy Helps Individuals Challenge These Distortions
Patients learn to question their negative thoughts, consider alternative explanations, and develop more balanced perspectives.
Effectiveness & Limitations of CBT
✔ CBT Is One of the Most Effective Treatments for Depression & Anxiety
Studies show that 80% of adults benefit from CBT (Beck, 2000).
More effective than medication for many disorders, with lower relapse rates.
Works well for depression, anxiety, PTSD, OCD, and phobias.
🚫 Limitations of CBT
Cause vs. Effect Debate → Does negative thinking cause depression, or does depression cause negative thinking? (Lewinsohn, 1981).
Not Suitable for Everyone → May be less effective for severe mental illnesses (e.g., schizophrenia).
Ethical Concerns in REBT → Some people find Ellis’s directive style too forceful.
Lewinsohn (1981)
Research on Depression
Key Ideas:
Found that individuals who later became depressed did not necessarily show more negative thinking before the onset
Suggested that negative thoughts might be a consequence of depression rather than its cause
This study raises questions about the directionality in the cognitive model of depression.
