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Cognitive Psychology > Cognitive Psychology Lecture 1-6 > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Lecture 1-6 Flashcards

L1,2,3

1
Q

Turing test- inspired AI

A

inspired cleverbots equates cognition with disembodied linguistic output need to encode everything it has had over time and come up with appropriate response

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2
Q

Definition of cognition

A

Activity of acquiring, organizing and using information to enable adaptive, goal directed (intelligent) behaviour

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3
Q

Cognisers- cognitive agent

A

o Sense/act on the environment o Detect/effect change in the environment o Construct mental models to represent causal structure of environment o Mental model then guides future behaviour (adapted response)

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4
Q

the computer model of cognition

A

brain = harware Mind = software encodes, stores, retrieves symbolic representations of knowledge

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5
Q

the model of cognition that goes against the computer model of cognition. and who did it

A

Analogue model of cognition. Shepard & Metzler (1971) cube things- degree of rotation proportional to time taken to do task showed some processes are carried out using analogue representations rather than abstract symbols

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6
Q

classical model of Cognition

A

Atkinson and Schiffrin (1968) Sensory memory, Short term memory, Long term mempory, rehearsal, retrieval

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7
Q

cognition is embodied, dynamic and situated

A

Dynamic = unfolds over time Embodied = tells about self and the environment and how they interact, grounded in physical analogues Situated = interactions and operates in head

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8
Q

Cognition is grounded. + Person

A

Lakoff & Johnson abstract concepts are grounded in physical metaphors balance // justice warmth and strength // love computational model of mind // cognition

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9
Q

Real time tracking of cognition (Person)

A

Spivey et al (2005) real time mouse to track and demonstrate categorical desicion making unfolding over time and the perceptual and motor processes that accompanied it Spivey & Dale (2006) showed mental activity is also conducted in between seemingly discrete thoughts best analyzed as dynamic biological process than staccato series of computer like thought

(experiment with the carrot. carriage etc.)

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10
Q

Mentalese (person)

A

Jerry Fodor metalese is tha language of thought communicate in language but when it is in a person’s brain it becomes mentalese

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11
Q

Mental representations may be Symbolic (Person for pt3) or analogue (Person)

A

Symbolic 1. Propositional representations Symbolic code to express underlying meaning of relationship between concepts. represents semantic element independent of specific surface details of event provides approximation of metalese 2. Propositions desbribes nature of mentalese predicate and number of arguments can be compined to represent complex r/s 3. Semantic networks (Rogers & McClelland, 2004) inherits properties above it Analogue (Shepard & Metzler, 1971)

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12
Q

Mobots (Person): Herbert and Leonardo

A

Herbert: pick up cans, simple, see and pick up what needed Leonardo: reacts based on social cues like tone and facial expression

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13
Q

Criticisms of classical view

A

does not account for simple things (does not say how they are grounded) based on sensation and perception sensory motor and social interaction

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14
Q

Schema

A

Way of thinking that represents your world. Different in individuals may be used directly/non-metaphorically, metaphorically onto argument or emotional life

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15
Q

What did Deacon say?

A

we are a symbolic species and rely on symbolic thought language is a mode of communication based on symbolic reference- need combinational rules to communicate effectively to show logical relationship among the symbols.

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16
Q

What did Vervet Monkey responses show? +Person

A

Seyfarth et al. (1980). Monkeys responded to each call differently. showed what early language might have been like

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17
Q

What 2 components are required for language?

A

Word meaning (symbolic reference) and syntax (rules for combining words)

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18
Q

Why is it difficult to teach language to animals?

A

Because they are not able to understand abstract concepts which is needed for symbolic reference

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19
Q

What is Reference? What are Pierce’s 3 Modes of reference?

A

reference = something bringing to mind something else. 3 modes of reference = iconic (lowest), indexical, symbolic (highest) iconic and indexical reference is often required to ground for symbolic reference

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20
Q

What is iconic reference?

A

Forms basis for recognition memory physical resemblance between the thing and what it signifies (Crocodile sign) like patomine. onomatopoeia: bang, woof, meow…

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21
Q

What is indexical reference?

A

it refers to the relationship between 2 items for you to know what one item leads to. Fire and smoke, vervet monket calls nouns and verbs are initially used in presence of thing or action to which they refer

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22
Q

What is symbolic reference?

A

Abstract/arbitrary socially agreed upon convention ‘nothing about the word cat that implies its cattishness’

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23
Q

How do learn symbols?

A

1st. by recognising symbol-object relations (needs to be in physical form) 2nd. refer to it despite it’s physical form being absent 3rd. learn tha some symbols go with others rather than context 4th. learn that similar words are often used alternatively rather than together. words with different meanings are adjacents to one another in sentences 5th. few sentences are ever repeated in the exact same way

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24
Q

Since learning language is so difficult, how are we able to do it?

A

Because after ahile you get the hang of it because they are kept stable by other connection

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25
Q

Are apes able to learn language? (Person)

A

No, Nim Chimpsky. Terrence et al. Nim could not learn symbolic reference, only indexical. only could request things seemed more like copying that actually forming sentences

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26
Q

What did Sherman and Austin show?

A

able to use symbolic reference on first trial. used lexigrams- able to show they understood symbolic reference unlike Jack and Jill.

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27
Q

What did Epstein, Lanza & Skinner claim about Jack and Jill (1980)?

A

They claimed they were similar to Sherman & Austin. but they werent- because they were taught the sequence while sherman and Austin succeded on first trial.

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28
Q

Which monkey was able to learn language properly?

A

Kanzi (bonobo)- learnt through observation of mother’s lessons.

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29
Q

Is word processing automatic or effortful?

A

Automatic- we don’t even realise we do it

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30
Q

What is a lexicon?

A

A mental dictionary

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31
Q

What are the 3 lexical modalities?

A

Phonology (spoken/heard) Orthography (written/visual) Sign language (visuo-spatial) these perceptual modalities map onto concepts (semantics)

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32
Q

What is lexical access?

A

When memory for a specific perceptual word form is located and activated

33
Q

Name 2 pre-lexical cues to word boundaries. When do we develop these?

A

Transitional properties: The liklihood that a given syllable is followed by a specific syllable. Saffran et al. (1996): liked novel words compared to habituated words prosodic cues: regularity in speech. Trochaic- strong, weak. (English- 90%). or Iambic (weak, strong) develop it as infants. Jusczyk et al. (1999) did an experiment to show when infants could distinguish the two types pre-lexical cues are based on our ability of our brains to tune into statistical properties of the speech stream

34
Q

When are infants able to distinguish the two types of speech (iambic and trochaic)? + Person

A

Jusczyk et al. (1999) @7.5 months- trochaic but not iambic. @10.5 months- both trochaic and iambic ‘guitar is…‘percieved as ‘taris’- trochaic- 7.5 months measured based on preferential looking time

35
Q

What do adults use to segment speech?

A

pre-lexical cues and also lexical knowledge (knowledge of the sound of words) lexical knowledge is used to clarify perceptual ambiguity (you know I say a word even if you didn’t hear it properly)

36
Q

How do we recognise words? + Person

A

Parallel activation (Spivey & Dale, 2004): 2 similar sounding words and have to choose which to click- majority of time spent in the middle (ambigious pattern of neural activity). mind is constantly evolving potential candidates that are activated in parallel. Lateral inhibition: words compete. bigger activation inhibits smaller activation when threshold is reached TRACE Model (McCelland & Elman, 1986): feature level–>phoneme level (Lexical feedback to show which are candidates for the word) –> word level (lateral inhibition to supress activation of competing node). based on nodes which represent meaningful pieces of information

37
Q

how old is orthography? Is it old or new?

A

relatively new, 5000 years. all cultures have spoken but not all have written (most have written)

38
Q

What is phonemic awareness?

A

explicit knowldge of spoken language broken into their smallest parts. can distinguish from implicit knowledge becuase we will be able to recognise spoken word by single phoneme able to manipulate sound of spoken language (What sound is left if I take the /k/ sound from ‘cat’?)

39
Q

what is normally learnt in conjunction with phonemic awareness?

A

Phonemic awareness is learnt in conjunction with alphabetic principle and letters are used to represent speech sounds

40
Q

What do we need to sound out a word we have not seen before?

A

Phoemic awareness + knowledge of alphabetic principle. enables phonological recoding: enables reader to decode orthographic form to gain access to the thousands of words already in phonological lexicon

41
Q

What is often used to represent a phoneme?

A

Grapheme-phoneme correspondence grapheme = cluster of letters/letter

42
Q

in reading, what is the frequency effect? in reading, what is the regularity effect? in reading, what is the frequency x Regularity effect?

A

Frequency effect = frequently encountered words are read faster than less frequently encountered words Regularity effect = irregular words read more slowly than regular words Frequency x Regularity effect = regularity affects low frequency words, does not affect high frequency words

43
Q

Describe the dual-route (cascaded) model of reading. + Person

A

Coltheart (1978) 2 routes to convert print to sound: - lexical - non-lexical route if word is familair- lexical route (for both regular and irregular words) if not familair- non-lexical, irregular words regularized, uses grapheme-phoneme conversion rule to sound out words Regularity x Frequency interaction: low frequency irregular words slower in lexical route b/c low freq= higher threshold of activation. hence regularized pronounciation is produced by non-lexical route high frequency regular words are fast- lexical- avoid interference from non-lexical route

44
Q

What is affect? Mood? Emotion? State? Trait?

A

Affect = both mood and emotion Mood = No idea why feel that way, not really about anything, low intensity Emotion = intense, short lived, definite cause State = transient, variable, mood or affect Trait = enduring, makes people display certain states

45
Q

What are the 6 Universal facial expression?

A

Anger, disgust, Happiness, Fear, Surprise, Sadness Cross cultural

46
Q

What is hot cognition?

A

cognition as a emotionally infused process. without emotion, leonardo the robot would not be able to tell what we were saying emotional prosody provides impt info for meaning of words (angry, sad, happy…)

47
Q

What is a state space? + person + Problems?

A

Lang et al an area where you plot on a affect grid on valence (pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal (calm/aroused) Problems: 1. some emotions may be contradictory ( Nostalgia, exhilaration) 2. C-shaped: nothing we experience that is neutrally valenced yet arousing

48
Q

How are the concepts of arousal and memory linked according to Bradley et al (1992)?

A

Highly arousing words regardless of valence will be more recognised in recognition memory test compared to less arousing words maybe it is because high arousal = need for survival therefore give extra encoding so we remember

49
Q

Describe an emotional Stroop task.

A

word is emotional. required to ignore emotion of word and name ink colour. anxious trait individuals show more interference than non-anxious (interpreted as Anxiety-related attentional bias)

50
Q

Describe McLeod et al.’s (1986) dot-probe task.

A

neutral word and threat word. tested attentional capture. People more anxious, more prone to attentional capture. Even when not required RT slower for anxious people if threat and dot in different location RT faster for normal people if non-threat and dot in same location (Mismatch)

51
Q

Describe the concept of Collin & Quillan’s (1969) semantic network model of semantic knowledge.

A

nodes represent similarity between items. definition of concept is in relation to other connections. inherit properties from above hierachical retrieval of info = spreading activation in sentence verification task, the further away, the longer it takes. is proof of spreading activation

52
Q

Describe Meyer & Schvaneveldt’s (1971) experiment testing of spreading activation.

A

given words. asked if they are actual words. words that are closer together have faster RT than words that are unrelated/far apart. (Nurse doctor vs Nurse butter). Spreads faster if concepts are related. IMPT that there were equal amount of letters in doctor and butter.

53
Q

Do you best recall a story when mood is congruent or incongruent with the story? + Person

A

Bower’s Mood Congruent memory recall better if own mood and mood of story were same

54
Q

How is Mood congruent memory different from Mood Dependent Memory? + Person

A

Bower’s Mood Dependednt memory is an extension of Tulving’s state dependent memory. learn neutral words, recall better is mood at recall = mood at encoding

55
Q

How does Bower explain the cycle of mood in depression?

A

Depressed mood lowers threshold for associated concepts and makes more retrievalable. positively valenced concepts and memories are inhibited. this increases depressed mood and the cycle goes on

56
Q

What did Surprenant & Neath (2009) say about the nature of memory?

A

inherently constructive. uses cues from encoding and retrieval to construct a response to the cue

57
Q

what is the standard model of memory?

A
58
Q

What are the limitations of memory?

A 
Memory is only as good as the details which are encoded in the first place.
 sensory limitations (attentional bottleneck)
59
Q

What affects memory (encoding or retrieval)?

A

Distance (visual system removes details in proportion to distance)

Distraction (Daniels, 1895: impairs encoding, more distraction, the longer it takes to recall)

Distinctive features which attract attention (remembered better. Light, Kayra-Stuart & Hollander (1979): atypical or not average attractive remembered better. Fleischman et al. (1976): attractive and unattractive faces recalled better than moderately attractive faces.)

Weapon focus (fixate faster and longer on unusual/salient or highly infomative objects. Loftus et al. (1987): no weapon- 38% hit, weapon- 11% hits)

60
Q

What is a retrieval bottleneck?

A

at recall, we fill in based on expectation or prior knowledge of what isn’t stored.

61
Q

What is a schema?

A

A concept or set of ideas or framework for representing some objects of the world.
influences how you interepret info and play large role in determining what you pay attention to when learning
hard to change even when provided contradictory information.
info often reinterpreted to fit with schema

62
Q

Is memory constructive? What evidence is there to support the statement? + Person

A

Yes, memory is constructive.
Carnichael, Hogan & Walter (1932): given picture of line and 2 circles connecting to it. Told it was barbell or glasses.
What they were told affected what they drew after.
knowledge of iten superseded actual details of studied item
recollection altered in direction of label

63
Q

what did Sir Fredrick Bartlett’s (1932) experiment do/show?

A

Ghost stories.
20hrs
30 months
6.5 yrs

style and rhythm altered
items and forms stereotypes
story rationalized
meaning of symbols added
details ommitted, simplified, transformed to more familiar forms
transformed to expectation of how details fit
only gist remained

64
Q

Can memory be influenced by expectation?

A

yes.
Loftus et al. (1987): language used in questioning affected memory when asked if they saw broken glass.
More likely to say they saw broken glass if it was smashed rather than Hit, or bump or collided, contacted.

Asking a specific question about speed of cars using a leading question influenced the estimate of speed and inferences based on memory for particular events

Charman & Wells (2007): instructed participants increase (and more likely to increase) false alarm for both target present and target absent trials.
instructions influence expectation, which influences participants decisions about what they remember.

65
Q

What did Garry and Gerrie do that was not so nice?

A

Implanted false memories. belief in false scene increase after interview. at end, participant believed it did happen.

66
Q

Complete the sentence. If Cues are ——–, schema is ————- which adapts to explain the data

A

Cues are data, schema is hypothesis which adapts to explain the data

67
Q

Is it easy to remove the influence of misinformation? + Person

A

NO, it is diffult to remove misinformation. Misinformation has continued influence effect.
Johnson & Seifert (1994): warehouse fire. No difference in recall for time taken in retraction.
only when given alternative theory, then misinformation decreases back to normal

68
Q

What was the difference between the different countries for belief for retracted false statements?

A

Americans had higher belief that false retracted items were true. Skepticism may affect memory misinformation.

69
Q

What do We know about the context of encoding and retrieval? + Person

A

Godden & Baddelev (1975): Divers example. Better recall when recalled in same learning environment

Roediger & Karpicke (2006): practicing recall by testing under similar conditions. context match helps for later retrieval

70
Q

What is Tulving & Thomas’s “Encoding Specificity Principle”?

A

overlap between study context and retrieval facilitates recall

71
Q

What is cognitive interview? Why is it good?

A

re-instating context, recall events in different order, from different perspective, in as much detail as possible, even if detail is superficial.

Cognitive interview increased correct recall by 20-25% compared to standard interview.

Based on 2 principles (Geiselman, Fisher, MacKinnin & Holland, 1985): Tulving & Thomas’s “Encoding specificity principle” and Tulving’s “Retrieval paths”

72
Q

Why do we use ANOVA?

A
  • Need to compare more than 2 groups
  • calculates variance between groups
  • stat it gives = F-ratio
  • larger sample -> null hypothesis less likely to be true
  • smaller sample -> null hypothesis less likely to be true
  • null hypothesis when P<.05
73
Q

How Many DF’s do we use for ANOVA?

A

2DF

  • 1 for within-groups
  • 1 for between-groups
74
Q

How do we calculate F-ratio?

A
75
Q

Where is F-ratio located?

A

In the tail of the distribution

76
Q

Why do we need Post-Hoc tests for ANOVA?

A

because we know which groups are significantly different, but we don’t know how much they are different by

77
Q

What do we need to be watchful of when using ANOVA?

How do we check for this phenonmenon?

A

We need to check for False Alarms.

the more groups there are, the more liekly we are to get false alarms

Use Bonferonni tests to get a more conservative FA rate by dividing number 0.5 (P<.05) by number of comparisons we do.

78
Q

What is Apophenia?

A

It refers to meaningless data/ data without a pattern

Cognitive Psychology (3 decks)

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