Cognitive Psychology- Loftus and Palmer and Grant

Question 1

What is the cognitive approach

Answer 1

Cognitive psychologists believe behavior is a result of information processing. Internal mental processes such as memory, thinking, language etc. are important features influencing behavior
The human mind works like a computer, it inputs information and then we actively process the information around us through our experiences and interactions and decide on the appropriate output

Question 2

What is the background of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 2

Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and retrieval of information. Bartlett (1932) suggested that memory is influenced by what an individual already knows using their past experiences to deal with a new experience known as schemas. Reconstructive memory involves interpreting what is seen or heard but this can be distorted in two ways. Firstly, our expectations of what we should anticipate would have happened and post-event information such as how we are asked to recall information. All of this is important to know when we consider eyewitness testimony as the memory of an event can be easily influenced yet juries are often convinced by an eyewitness testimony. This lead Loftus and Palmer to investigate how reliable they are and how memory can be impacted by leading questions

Question 3

What is the aim of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 3

To investigate the effects of leading questions on an individuals ability to accurately recall events

Question 4

What was the research method used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 4

Both experiments were lab experiments using independent measures designs and were conducted in a highly controlled environment

Question 5

What was the sample used in Loftus and Palmer for experiment 1?

Answer 5

45 of Loftus’ students from Washington University divided into 5 groups (one group from each verb) with 9 participants in each group

Question 6

What was the independent variable in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 6

The wording of a critical question hidden in a questionnaire

Question 7

What was the dependent variable in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 7

The estimated speed in MPH given by the participants

Question 8

What was the procedure for Loftus and Palmer

Answer 8

The students were split into 5 groups of 9
They all watched the same 7 film clips of different traffic accidents alone in a room
Following each clip the participants were given a questionnaire of the same set of questions asking them to recall the accidents
However a critical question was included in a questionnaire that asked the participants “About how fast were the cars going when they… into each other?”
The critical question was manipulated into 5 conditions with 5 different verbs- smashed, hit, collided, contacted, bumped
Their estimated speed was recorded in MPH

Question 9

What were the controls used in experiment 1 in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 9

Same 7 film clips of traffic accidents
Same questionnaire with the exception of the critical verb

Question 10

Why was it important that all participants watched exactly the same films

Answer 10

To ensure a control in the experiment so Loftus and Palmer can be sure it was due to the verb that effected speed estimates not the film

Question 11

Why would they embed the critical question with others rather than just ask them on being analysed

Answer 11

The other questions were a distractor to ensure students did not guess the aim of the study and respond with demand characteristics

Question 12

What were the results for experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 12

Smashed- 40.5 MPH
Collided- 39.3 MPH
Bumped- 38.1 MPH
Hit- 34.0 MPH
Contacted- 31.8 MPH

Question 13

What were the overall conclusions of Loftus and Palmer in experiment 1

Answer 13

The verb used in a question influences a participants response like the way a question is phrased influences the answer given
People are not very good at judging vehicular speed

Question 14

Why did Loftus and Palmer do experiment 2?

Answer 14

Response bias- It is difficult to estimate speed accurately so a more serious sounding verb simply makes people estimate higher as the participant may have been unsure whether to say 30 MPH or 40 MPH so the verb smashed biased their response
Changes in memory- More serious sounding verbs caused people to really believe they did witness the cars travelling faster

Question 15

What was the sample used in experiment 2 in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 15

150 different students from Washington University were divided into 3 groups with 50 participants in each group

Question 16

What was the procedure of experiment 2

Answer 16

Split into 3 groups of 50
Watch one short clip of an accident
Asked to complete a questionnaire with a critical question
One group - Smashed question
Other group- Hit question
Control group- werent asked about the speed

Question 17

What would happen one week later for experiment 2

Answer 17

All the participants came back and without watching the film again they were asked 10 questions about the film.
Embedded in the new series of questions there was a critical question that appeared in a random order in the questions that all participants were asked

Question 18

What was the critical question in experiment 2

Answer 18

“Did you see any broken glass?”

Question 19

Why was there the critical question asked in experiment 2

Answer 19

To see if false memory could be implanted in their cognitive processing to see evidence for reconstructive memory

Question 20

What was the independent and dependent variable in experiment 2

Answer 20

IV- Verb used when asked about the speed (smashed vs hit)
DV- reporting of any broken glass by participants one week later

Question 21

What were the results of experiment 2

Answer 21

Response - Yes- Smashed- 16 Hit-7 Control- 6
Response- No Smashed- 34 Hit-43 Control-44

Question 22

What were the conclusions of experiment 2

Answer 22

Misleading post event information can distort an individuals memory
The participants saw the film and and some memories were created from this. The leading question provided after however information that there has been a “smash”. We associate “smash” with being broken and so expect broken glass to be present so participants add to their memory and recall seeing broken glass

Question 23

What were the overall conclusions of Loftus and Palmer

Answer 23

Memories are constructed from 2 sources of information - what we actually perceive is happening at the time AND the information later received and incorporated into our memories
Information from the 2 sources will integrate over time and we will be unable to decipher which source the information comes from
We are therefore unable to tell whether our memory is accurate
Therefore overall it is safe to say that eyewitness accounts of events may not be reliable sources of information especially when leading questions are used

Question 24

What are the strengths of the research method in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 24

2 lab experiments with high levels of control over extraneous variables as all participants had the same questions-and watched the same clips for the same lengths of time
So extraneous variables are controlled so they did not become confounding and cause and effect could be established between leading questions and eye witness testimony accuracy

Question 25

What are the weaknesses of the research method in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 25

Lab experiments have low ecological validity due to the artificial environment
The participants were all in a room together watching 7 different clips of car accidents and answering a questionnaire after each one
In real life a person would be at the scene of the crime and have the emotional arousal therefore lab experiments are hard to generalize in real life

Question 26

What are the strengths of the type of data in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 26

Quant data- MPH estimates and number of participants who reported seeing broken glass in exp 2 so it is easier to replicate increasing the external reliability of the study
Also easy to analyze and compare between groups increasing the internal validity of the study as the data is therefore objective and unbiased so more scientific

Question 27

What are the weaknesses of the type of data in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 27

Quantitative data does not provide reasons behind behavior so internal validity is decreased

Question 28

What are the strengths of the sample used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 28

In experiment 2 they used a larger sample of students of 150 so it was less biased
Used both males and females
From university so more likely to be a space with more culture

Question 29

What are the weaknesses of the sample used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 29

Small sample in experiment 1 and only 45 so small sample
All are students so not a diverse age range and may be more obedient
Participants in experiment 1 are all Loftus students so all hold similar charecteristics

Question 30

What are the strengths of the internal validity used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 30

Controls over extraneous variables are implemented for example all participants watch the same 7 clips of car accidents all lasting between 5 and 30 seconds and all answered the same questionnaire with the only difference being the critical question
Allows Loftus to establish a cause and effect relationship between the strength of the leading verb and the eye witness testimony accuracy

Question 31

What are the weaknesses of the internal validity used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 31

Independent measures design was used so participants were not matched upon any personal characteristics
Therefore don’t know the previous driving experience of any of the participants
Therefore means that Loftus may have not measured the impact of the verb in a leading question as other factors may reduce the validity
Low ecological
Low population

Question 32

What are the strengths of the reliability used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 32

A standardised procedure is used where all participants watched the same 7 clips with the same questionnaire at the same time
This makes the study easier to replicate which therefore increases the internal reliability

Question 33

What are the weaknesses of the reliability used in Loftus and Palmer

Answer 33

At the start of the questionnaire the participants had to give an account of what they saw therefore qualitative data was gathered
This would be difficult to replicate therefore would make it slightly low in external reliability
This means there will be less consistency of results and limits the usefulness of the study as it limits the support of theories

Question 34

How was Loftus and Palmer ethical

Answer 34

Right to withdraw

Question 35

How was Loftus and Palmer unethical

Answer 35

Potential distress from watching car crashes so protection of participants
Deception
Not fully informed however will increase the internal validity of results as they are more likely to act naturally

Question 36

How are Loftus and Palmers findings useful

Answer 36

The research conducted by Loftus and Palmer has had a massive effect on the way that witnesses are dealt by police and in the courtroom
Police should now no longer be using leading questions and any hint of a leading questions can lead to the witness being classed as unreliable
Loftus and Palmers findings can be used to help police develop improved interview techniques that avoid using leading questions therefore increasing the internal validity of the witnesses testimonies

Question 37

How is Loftus and Palmer scientific

Answer 37

High controls so cause and effect can be established
High replicability so has a highly standardized nature

Question 38

How is Loftus and Palmer unscientific

Answer 38

Unable to operationise/internalize mental processes. We cannot see how the mind processes information to produce a behavioural output

Question 39

How does Loftus and Palmer fit the individual debate

Answer 39

Even though the research does highlight the impact of the leading questions on memory distortion many participants in experiment 2 still claimed to have not seen broken glass which shows individual differences in the ability to recall the details of previously experienced events

Question 40

How does Loftus and Palmer fit the situational debate

Answer 40

The verb used in the critical question led to biased responses from the participants. This demonstrates how the situational variable the type of question asked impacts the responses given by participants

Question 41

How is Loftus and Palmer socially sensitive

Answer 41

The results of the research could potentially attach a negative label to eye witness testimonies. This could prove problematic in a court case when the eye witness account is accurate
Due to these findings questioning the reliability of eye witness accounts it may make them a less credible source and change juries opinions of trusting thm

Question 42

How is Loftus and Palmer limited in usefulness

Answer 42

However, to some extent the research findings by Loftus and Palmer may be limited in usefulness, due to the lack of ecological validity within the research methodology. For example, the 45 student participants were subjected to 7 car crash film clips in a controlled laboratory setting, which is highly unrepresentative of how a person would witness a car crash in real life. Therefore, this questions our ability to generalise the findings gathered, such as the fact that the verb ‘smashed’ being used in the critical question leading to a higher speed estimate in mph, as the participants aren’t as likely to have experienced the same feelings of anxiety and distress that an eyewitness would when seeing a car crash unexpectedly in real life. This limits the usefulness of the research findings, as it questions whether the enhancement in knowledge is truly representative of eye witness recall.

Question 43

From Loftus and Palmer’s study into eye witness testimony: Describe the two kinds of information that go into an individual’s memory for a complex occurrence (4)

Answer 43

One kind of information that goes into memory is our expectations of an event, this is based on what we anticipate has happened. Another kind of information which is post –event information, these are occurrences after the event itself, such as the impact of how we are asked to recall information e.g. leading questions

Question 44

Explain how Loftus and Palmer’s Eyewitness Testimony study links to the key theme of memory (4)

Answer 44

Loftus and Palmer investigated into the effects of leading questions on memory recall, using a sample of 45 students from Washington University however 150 different students in experiment 2. In experiment 1, the participants were shown 7 clips of car crash accidents in a lab experiment setting, and they were then given questions to answer about the event, including a critical question that assessed their speed estimate in mph. This question had one of 5 critical verbs, smashed, collided, hit, bumped or contacted. In experiment 2, one of the groups of 50 was asked the smashed question, one the hit question and a control group was asked neither. Then a week later, they were asked if they had seen any broken glass, yes or no. It was found in experiment 1 that the verb smashed being heard in the critical question lead to an average speed estimate of 40.5mph compared to only 31.8 mph when the word contacted was used. In experiment 2, those who were asked the smashed question were more likely to say yes they had seen broken glass when there wasn’t any. This links to the key theme of memory as the findings demonstrate that post- event information such as a leading question can distort our memory of an event, so much so that they can implant false memories into our mind of events that didn’t even happen, leading our memory to be reconstructed.

Question 45

Outline how the study by Loftus and Palmer links to the cognitive area (4)

Answer 45

The cognitive approach explains behaviour as a result of information processing. The mind works as a computer, inputting information, processing it via our experiences and then the output, which is our behavioural response. Loftus and Palmer aimed to investigate into the effects of leading questions on eyewitness memory of an event. By showing participants clips of car crashes and then asking them a leading question to gain an estimate of speed in mph. Loftus and Palmer found that the more severe sounding the verb, the higher the speed estimate. For example, when asked how fast the cars were travelling when they smashed into each other, an average speed of 40.5 mph was recorded compared to 31.8mph when the word contacted was used. This links to the cognitive approach as it shows that when information is input, such as the car crash clips, the way we then process that information, is impacted by post- event information such as the type of question asked, leading to a varying behavioral outcome, a change in speed estimate

Question 46

What is context dependent memory

Answer 46

The idea that if you learn or encode information in a similar environment with the same contextual information as the environment where you recall information than your memory of that information would be improved

Question 47

What is recall

Answer 47

Remembering information with no prompts

Question 48

What is recognition

Answer 48

When you are given cues to prompt a response

Question 49

What is the background of Grant

Answer 49

Context dependent memory is the belief that if you encode and retrieve information in the same contextual environment with the same contextual information your performance overall will improve. However these effects of memory can change based on the types of test the learner is doing like the change in context has more of a negative impact on memory when the task if recall and not recognition. Previous research has shown that students study in very different environments to where they are examined such as with background noise. Therefore Grant wanted to show that context dependent memory could have a positive impact on students when they learn and recall in the same environment

Question 50

What was the aim of Grant

Answer 50

To test the context dependency effects caused by the presence or absence of noise during learning and retrieval of meaningful material

Question 51

What was the research method of Grant

Answer 51

A lab experiment using an independent measures design

Question 52

What was the IV of Grant

Answer 52

Whether the participant read the 2 page article under silent or noisy conditions or whether they were under matched or mismatched conditions

Question 53

What was the DV of Grant

Answer 53

The score on the recall and recognition task out of 26

Question 54

What is the sample used in Grants study

Answer 54

the 39 participants were aged 17-56 with a mean age of 23.4 and all acquaintances with the experimenters with 17 women and 23 men

Question 55

What was the sampling method used in Grants study

Answer 55

All recruited by opportunity sampling as 8 members of a psychology laboratory class served as experimenters and each experimenter recruited 5 acquaintances to serve as participants

Question 56

What was the encoding stage of the procedure of Grant

Answer 56

1) All participants wore a pair of headphones to block out any external noise
2) Participants in the noisy encoding conditions had background sounds like cafeteria noise playing through the headphones
3) The participants in the silent condition head nothing through their headphones

Question 57

What was the encoding stage of the procedure of Grant (2)

Answer 57

4) All participants were asked to read a meaningful article on psychoimmunology
5) Once they had all read the article all participant had a 2 minute break before the recall stage

Question 58

What was the recall stage of the procedure of Grant

Answer 58

6) After the break participants were asked to answer 26 questions about the article they had just read
7) 16 of the questions were multiple choice (recognition) and 10 were short answer questions (recall)

Question 59

What were the results of Grant

Answer 59

Silent silent- 81%
Noisy noisy- 79%
Silent noisy- 68%
Noisy silent- 70%

Question 60

What were the conclusions of Grant

Answer 60

There are context dependency effects for newly learned meaningful material regardless of whether a short answer test or multiple choice test is used to assess learning
Studying and testing in the same environment is likely to enhance performance

Question 61

What was the strength of a snapshot study being conducted for Grant

Answer 61

A snapshot study allows for high control over extraneous variables due to the fact that not a lot of time passes leading to a loss of control. For example all participants have the same time constraints, article and volume levels. Therefore we are able to establish cause and effect between context dependent effects and memory recall which increases internal validity

Question 62

What was the weaknesses of a snapshot study being conducted for Grant

Answer 62

A snapshot study cannot track the memory of the participants over time as it develops as only studied once. For example their memory of the article can improve over time due to a number of different factors like age experience and education
Therefore the results are less useful as an accurate representation of context dependent memory

Question 63

What was the strength of Grants research method

Answer 63

This is a lab experiment with high control over extraneous and confounding variables. For example, all of the participants read the exact same article on psychoimmunology to control for the difficulty of the text not affecting their recall and recognition. Therefore this increases the internal validity of the study as Grant is ensuring that he is measuring context dependency effects allowing him to establish cause and effect

Question 64

What were the weaknesses of Grants research method

Answer 64

A lab experiment will lack ecological validity as elements of the task were not true to real life. For example, it is very rare that students will learn or be tested with headphones on and whilst listening to artificial background noise. Therefore the results limit the generlisability to real students in school lowering the usefulness of Grants study

Question 65

What are the strengths of the type of data used in Grants study

Answer 65

The data collected was quantitative making it easier to analyse and establish trends and patterns. For example the mean score for both the MCQ and short answer tests can be easily compared between the 4 conditions to see which was higher. Therefore it is easier to check for consistency in students recall and recognition scores when in matching or mismatching conditions which increases external reliability

Question 66

What are the weaknesses of the type of data used in Grants study

Answer 66

The data lacks internal validity as there is no insight as to why participants performed better when learning and test conditions are matched. For example if the participants had been asked if they found the test difficult or not and why then that would give more insight as to why they may have struggled. This limits the usefulness of research as we cannot draw effective practical applications as the results could be due to other study factors

Question 67

What are the strengths of the sample used in Grants study

Answer 67

The sample has a mixture of men and women at a different age range meaning it is representative of various groups of people. For example there are both men and women with an age range of 17-56 so context dependent effect are being tested on all ages and genders. This means that the results are more generalizable and aren’t just applicable to young students increasing the population validity and usefulness of the findings

Question 68

What are the weaknesses of the sample used in Grants study

Answer 68

The sample all consists of acquaintances of the 8 research partners so they may show characteristics of DC or SDB

Question 69

What is a strength of validity in Grants research

Answer 69

As this was an independent measures design there was a reduced risk of order effects. For example all participants only took part in one condition like silent silent so they had no time to practice the test or more time to memories the article They also had less time to guess the aim reducing demand charecteristics
This means that internal validity is increased as grant can ensure he is measuring what he set out to measure and that no other variables affect the results

Question 70

What is a weakness of validity in Grants research

Answer 70

There is a higher risk of individual differences due to the independent measures design
For example students knowledge of psychoimmunology prior to the experiment their capacity for memorising meaningful material and IQ may impact their performance on the test and not the environment
Therefore Grant cannot ensure that it is the conditions of the environment affecting their performance on the tests as it can be a number of dispositional factors so we cannot properly establish cause and effect `

Question 71

What is the strength in internal reliability in Grants study

Answer 71

The study is high in internal reliability as there is a standardized procedure that can be replicated easily
For example much of the procedure was standardised so all participants had the same experiences like the same article and same background noise and questions
Therefore grant could easily replicate this study to check for the consistency of results and increase the scientific nature of results into context dependent memory

Question 72

What is a weakness of external reliability in Grants study

Answer 72

Due to the low number of participants there is an ability o check for consistency of large numbers of results reducing the external reliability
For example there were only 39 participants in the study meaning that the consistency between the test scores out of 26 will not show a highly reliable picture of the consistency of test scores
This limits the reliability of results as we do not know how they would compare to larger samples

Question 73

What is ethical about Grants study

Answer 73

Grant adheres to all ethical guidelines and ensures that all of his participants are fully debriefed at the intent of the study at the end
For example after the participants completed the recall and recognition tasks they were each debriefed and the full purpose of the study was explained to them
This is a strength as it adheres to the ethical principle of responsibility which will encourage further people to research into context dependent memory

Question 74

How does Grant fit the individual debate

Answer 74

Grant addresses the individual debate as their are many individual differences within the results
For example the silent silent condition scores a mean percentage of 81% not 100% meaning that the context dependent memory as not successful for all of the participants int he matched condition
Strength because it illustrates how not all individuals are impacted in the same way by their situation
Weakness as we have to create practical applications that cater to all different types of people to help improve their memory

Question 74

What is unethical about Grants study

Answer 74

On the other hand Grant deceives the participants as they are unaware they are taking part in a study on memory
For example each participant was told that their comprehension of the article was being tested not their memory
This violates the guidelines of respect meaning participants may have felt embarrassed and lied to and therefore not wanted their data to be used

Question 75

How does Grant link to the situational debate

Answer 75

Situational factors as the contextual information within the participants situation or environment has a major impact of their memory recall
For example Grant found that when participants learn in a mismatched environment (SN) their recall is noticably worse as the situational change causes a drop in memory recall as their mean percentage score out of 26 was only 68%
This is a strength as we can create environmental changes to peoples situation in order for their context dependent memory to improve
Weakness as we cannot change all aspects of our situation all the time which may negatively impact memory like noise

Question 76

How can Grant be considered reductionist

Answer 76

Grant can be considered reductionist as the main focus of the study is how situational factors and the contextual information around us impacts our memory largely ignoring individual differences
For example Grant found that if the contextual information within your situation during encoding and retrieval is similar especially when it is silent than your memory recall would be much better as the SS group had a mean score of 81%. However he doesnt consider their individual differences such as intelligence ignoring dispositional factors
Strength as it is more scientific as a causal relationship can be established
Weakness as it lack usefullness as we dont understand the interaction between nature and nurture and memory

Question 77

How does Grant relate to Holism

Answer 77

However Grant can be considered holistic as he looks at different types of context both matched and mismatched
For example the participants either learned the article in silence or in noise and then retrieved the information in a matched or mismatched environment allowing for an insight into how both matched and mismatched contextual information can impact ones memory
Strength as it allows for a mroe useful comparison of results between matched and mismatched conditions
Weakness as it lacks specific insight into ones context depednent memory

Question 78

How does Grant address the free will debate

Answer 78

Grant addresses the free will debate as none of the results are 100% meaning that the participants exercised their free will to some extent while answering the questions
For example the SS group scored a mean score of 81% when doing the test out of 26. However as this is not 100% some of the participants must have exercised their free will and took control over their tests and either did better or worse than the others in the group
This is a strength as people can exercise their free will in order to improve their memory by ensuring that their situation is amended and that the contextual information is the same during encoding and retrieval

Question 79

How does Grant address the determinism debate

Answer 79

On the other hand Grant also addresses the determinism debate as he illustrates how the contextual information out of the participants control is predetermining their memory recall
For example the participants in the noisy condition has no control over the background noise that they were hearing or the conversations and music. The matched and mis matched conditions they also had no control over
This is a weakness as for those who cannot control their environment due to a large amount of background noise whioe revising or learning may be stigmatised

Question 80

How is Grant a useful study

Answer 80

Useful due to generalisable practical applications to schools and students in order to enhance knowledge of the most appropriate and effective environments to study in
Can be implemented in schools to make sure studnets are revising in an environment which will match their exam hall

Question 81

How does Grant have limited usefulness

Answer 81

The sample is very small and the task and settings are only applicable to students in a school environment and context dependent memory could occur in different situations and settings like crime scenes

Question 82

How is Grants study scientific

Answer 82

Scientific as it adheres to many scientific principles such as objective quantitative measures
They were asked to answer 10 short answer recall questions and 16 multiple choice recognition questions to see what theyd remembered given a score out of 26. Allowed grant to objectively compare the mean percentage of each group finding that SS is at 81% however SN was at 68%
Great strength for the study as it will increase the levels of external reliability meaning consistency can be checked between the groups and more scientific conclusions can be gathered on context dependent memory

Question 83

How is Grants study not scientific

Answer 83

On the other hand the study may be said to lack control as each participant was allowed to read the article for as long as they wanted meaning it could be an extraneous variable
For exmaple some participants may have read the psychoimmunology article in more depth or multiple times comapared to other participants meaning that the test scores arnt impacted by the matched or mismatched conditions but by the length of time the article was read for
Weakness as it limits the establishment of cause and effect as the ind variable of 4 different conditions has not been properly isolated reducing the scientific nature and internal validity of the study

Question 84

Explain how Grant’s study links to the key theme of memory (4) what, who, how, finding to make a link

Answer 84

Grant explored context dependent memory in matched and mismatched conditions to see if memory recall could be improved. He used 39 men and women, ages 17-56, and split them into 4 groups, silent silent, noise noisy, silent noisy and noisy silent. Each participant wore headphones regardless of their condition and those in the noise condition heard cafeteria background noise through their headphones. They were all asked to read a meaningful article and were then tested on it, completing a recall and recognition task in either a matched or mismatched condition from the one they had just been in. It was found that the participants in the silent silent condition scored a mean percentage of 81%, compared to silent noisy who were only 68%, which links to the key theme of memory as their memory was clearly better when their contextual information was matched.

Question 85

Outline how Grant’s study links to the cognitive approach (4) assumption, link (buzz phrases

Answer 85

The cognitive approach assumes that behaviour is a result of internal mental processes such as memory. The belief is that we input information from our environment, process it based on previous experiences and then output it as behaviour. Grant links to the cognitive approach as he shows that our memory processing can be greatly improved if the information we process during encoding and retrieval holds similar contextual information. If this happens, then our output of memory retrieval and recognition will be much better than if these environments were mismatched, this was illustrated at the group who learnt in silence and were tested in silence (matched) scored the highest mean scores on the 2 tests, which was 81%, compared to the silent noisy condition who scored 68%

Question 86

To what extent does Grant enhance our understanding of memory (5)

Judgement, in a nutshell what the change is, show this change from grant, what gap loftus left in our memory, why is this enhancement in our knowledge useful

Answer 86

Grant enhances our understanding of individual diversity as he adds to our academic knowledge of a different type of memory, context dependent memory. He advises us on how we can adapt our environment to improve memory recall in order to enhance the cognitive process when encoding complex information. Loftus and Palmer tell us about reconstructive memory and the negative impact of post event information on the ability to accurately recall events, finding that when asked leading questions our memory of an event can be distorted evidenced by a higher speed estimate of a car when asked how fast they thought it was travelling when its ‘smashed’ into another car. However, the researchers focus more so on how memory can be distorted rather than improved. Whereas, Grants study into the effects of contextual information on memory recall allows us to see a different individual difference in memory and how memory can be improved, and he found that participants who were in a matched condition during encoding and retrieval of complex information, scored much better on memory recall questions that participants who were in mismatched environments. This enhances our understanding of memory as this can be applied to school setting to reiterate the importance of learning in silent conditions, as students will later be examined in silent conditions. Therefore, Grant’s study is highly useful and can be used to inform students of all ages, of the importance of encoding and retrieving meaningful material in the same environment, in order to improve their overall performance on tests