Cold War (1945-75) Flashcards
(136 cards)
1
Q
3
Describe the Cold War policies of Truman-JFK
A
- Truman - containment
- Ike - roll back
- JFK - brokemanship (e.g. Berlin and Cuba)
2
Q
4 + 4
List Cold War developments during Truman’s Presidency
A
-
USSR
- Truman Doctrine
- Marshall Aid 1948
- Berlin Airlfit 1949
- Arms Race
-
Asia
- Korean War
- SCAP occupation of Japan
- China relations
- Vietnam relations
3
Q
2
How did the area of focus during the Cold War shift
A
- Europe intially main theatre of tension
- Shifted to Asia after Korean War began
4
Q
5
Describe USSR exclusion from the Manhattan Project
A
- USSR seen as temporary ally - remained repressive dictatorship and ideological opponent
- Project lasted 1942-45 with British-Candadian support
- Sudden absence of journal articles in American nuclear fission research prompted Stalin to start own atomic bomb project in February 1943
- Soviet spies (e.g. Fuchs) had infilitrated project
- At Potsdam conference, Truman informed Stalin of American ‘superweapon’ following Trinity test - yet unknown to Truman, Stalin had already known of this development
5
Q
4
Describe the Tehran Conference 1943
A
- Big Three met to discuss Operation Overload (D-Day) and post-war future of Germany and Eastern Europe
- FDR conceded USSR territorial gains in ice-free ports of China in exchange for Soviet support against Japan
- Agreed on adjustment of German-Polish border to Oder and Neisse rivers (USSR gained land from Poland, who in return gained land from Poland)
- FDR proposed to Stalin his vision of United Nations dominated by ‘Four Policemen’ of USA, USSR, Britain and China
Big Three - FDR, Stalin, Churchill
6
Q
8 - don’t need all
Describe the Yalta Conference 1945
A
- Feb 1945
- Formalised agreements at Tehran
- Agreed on German division into East and West Allied Zones
- Stalin pledged to hold free elections in all territories liberated from Nazis
- Agreed inclusion of Communists in post-war Polish national govt
- Soviets granted sphere of influence in Manchuria
- Finalised US Security Council proposals - agreement on permanent veto and expansion to incorporate France
- FDR accused of handing over Northern Asia and Eastern Europe
7
Q
2
Describe public sentiment following Yalta
A
- Extensive poll found 50% of American public felt that wartime co-op with USSR should continue
- Sentiment quickly withered following Truman inauguration
8
Q
6
Describe the Postdam Conference 1945
A
- July 1945
- Churchill replaced by Atlee; FDR replaced by Truman (more critical of Stalin)
- Further finalisation on Germany borders and demilitarisation
- USSR would recieve 1/2 of German reparations
- ‘Postdam Declaration’ to promise Japanese destruction if it did not surrender - USSR did not sign until 8 Aug, one week before surrender
- Truman notification of ‘superweapon’ marked end of wartime alliance with USSR
9
Q
3
Describe the reason why the USSR recieved half of German reparations
A
- 27m total deaths (US incurred less than 2% of such losses)
- 6m homes destroyed
- Needed greater funding to rebuild
10
Q
2
Describe Truman’s expansion of the US’ intellegience capabilities
A
- CIA established 1947
- 1950 National Security Council Report, NSC-68, committed the US to massive funding of National Security State expansion
11
Q
4
Describe the USSR forcing communism onto eastern Europe in the late 1940s
A
- Stalin started imposing communist regimes on many of the countries they had liberated from the Nazi’s:
- 1947, Romania - King was given 2 hours to introduce a pro-communist government after meeting with Soviet deputy foreign minister
- Imposition of communist satellite states in Hungary in 1947 and Czechoslovakia in 1948
- Only Greece, embroilled in civil war, did not succumb to communist forces
12
Q
3
Describe international concern about the USSR spreading communism in the late 1940s
A
- Truman increasingly concerned that Communism would spread to countries outside of soviet rule
- 1946, Churchill spoke of ‘Iron Curtain’ in speech in Fulton, Missouri
- by 1949, agreed that Cold War had developed
13
Q
3
Describe Government divisions over the post-WW2 FP
A
- Liberals like Henry Wallace (VP 1941-45) urged compromise with Stalin
- Hawkish voices like James Brynes (Sec of State 1945-47) urged unyielding voice
- Truman settled on more hawkish ‘Truman Doctrine’
14
Q
4
Describe the Truman Doctrine
A
- 1947, Truman promised US support, even if short of military action, for nations facing Communist threat
- Sought to ensure democratic political integrity in those nations
- American national security now depdended on much more than physical security of territory
- Permanently orientated American FP from isolationism to interventionism
15
Q
3
Describe the first application of the Truman Doctrine
A
- Britain announced it could no longer fund anti-Communist forces in Turkish Straits Crisis and Greek Civil War
- 1947, Congress approved Truman request for $400m of support for Greece and Turkey
- Greece and Turkey subsequently resisted Communism so doctrine deemed successful.
16
Q
5
Describe Marshall Aid 1948
A
- Offered $13bn package to help European nations recover from effects of WW2
- Conference of 22 nations set up to assess economic needs of affected countries
- USSR and satellite states did not attend
- 16 Western European nations formed European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) to spend this money
- Aid intended to stop struggling euro nations from slipping into Communism and succesfully combatted French and Italian communist movements
17
Q
3
Why was Stalin so determined to force the West out of Berlin?
A
- Brain drain of young talent
- Losing ideological battle - young opting for capitalist West Germany
- East German govt pressured Stalin to act
18
Q
5
Describe what caused the Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- By 1948, 3 Allied zones had endured strong economic recovery
- Soviet zone suffered from stagnation with communism increasingly imposed upon it
- June 1948, Western zones introduced new currency, Deutschmark - hoped to make it legal tender in Berlin
- Stalin cut all transport links and communications between Allied Zones and Berlin
- Hoped to blocade West Berlin into accepting Communist rule (made possible by lack of ratified WW2 peace treaty)
19
Q
4
Describe the Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- Britain and US organised an airlift of essential supplies to blockaded West Berlin
- By March 1949, 8k tonnes of daily supplies were being delivered
- Faced down Soviet threat to aircraft flying through controlled airspace
- May 1949, Stalin called blockade off
20
Q
2
Describe the impact of Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- Demonstrated Truman commitment to and success of ‘containment’ in Europe
- Allied Zones would merge into West Germany 2 weeks later afterwards
21
Q
5
Describe the formation of NATO
A
- Formed April 1949
- Defensive alliance, yet main purpose to limit Soviet expansion
- Defences placed under joint NATO command organisation
- Article 5 - collective defense
- with US encouragement, European economies began to consolidate into ECSC/EEC
22
Q
5
Describe American aims in Asia (1945-60)
A
- Truman Doctrine - provide financial assistance to anti-commist forces in Japan and China
- Support independent capitalist South Korea
- Support French forces in Indochina
- 1950, Dean Acheson (Sec of State) spoke of need for ‘defensive perimeter’ in Pacific to prevent advances of Communist forces
- 1954, Eisenhower warned of ‘domino theory’ - collapse of one govt to communism would precipitate collapse of neighbouring countries
23
Q
2
Describe the background of the Korean War
A
- Following WW2, Korea split along 38th parallel
- 1949, both US and USSR troops withdrew from region following Mao victory in China
24
Q
4
Describe the invasion and liberation of South Korea in 1950
A
- March 1950, North Korea invaded the South
- UN sent 15-nation strong forces to halt invasion
- The vast majority were US and under command of General MacArthur (Supreme Commander for Allied powers)
- UN forces liberated South Korea
25
# 5
Describe the Korean War following the involvement of China
* UN forces invaded North following South liberation, ignoring warnings
* Truman fired MacArthur for going beyond orders
* Truman faced tremendous hostility for decision and portrayed as soft on communism
* Oct 1950, China sent in 250k troops
* Led to stalemate for 3 years
26
# 4
Describe the hostile consequences of the Korean War 1950-53
* Sino-American hostility increased (second phase had essentially been Sino-American war)
* US gave increased support to Taiwan
* Sustained McCarthyism and worsened Cold War antagonism
* Later revealed that soviets secretly sent air forces to help NK
27
# 2
Describe the non-hostile consequences of the Korean War 1950-53
* Demonstrated that WW3 was unwanted by 3 major powers
* Sacking of MacArthur USA planned to stick to containment not domination
28
# 4
Describe US relations with Japan (1945-52)
* SCAP would occupy Japan from 1945-52 under control of MacArthur
* 1st phase - fundamental changes to Japanese society and govt
* 2nd phase - 'reverse course'
* 3rd phase - peaceful transition
## Footnote
SCAP - Supreme Command of Allied Powers
29
# 4
Describe the 1st phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1945-47 (Political)
* Convening of war crime trials in Tokyo
* Japanese army dismantled
* Former army generals barred from political office
* imposed constitution of 1947 - downgraded emperor’s status to ceremonial role and transferred power to parliamentary system
30
# 2
Describe the 1st phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1945-47 (society/economy)
* SCAP enacted land reform to benefit majority tenant farmers over rich landowners who had previously advocated Japanese expansion
* worked to break up Japanese conglomerates ‘zaibatsu’ to spur free market competition
31
# 4
Describe the 2nd phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1947-50
* Economic crisis and increased fear of communism after Chinese CW conclusion forced reconsideration of occupation policies
* Initiated major tax reform
* Korean War boosted demand for military supplies for UN forces
* Japan placed in confines of US defence perimeter
32
# 3
Describe the 3rd phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1950-52
* US threats had changed so profoundly in years 1945-50 that rearmament of Japan no longer alarmed US officials
* Treaty of San Francisco 1951 ended Allied Occupation
* US would maintain bases in Okinawa and other areas in Japan
33
# 5
Describe relations with China under Truman's Presidency (CW)
* US had supported Chiang Kai-Shek and Chinese Nationalists against Mao of CCP in CW (1945-49)
* Mao a strict anti-American, anti-imperialist
* US abandoned Chiang by 1949, who fled to Taiwan
* US refused to recognise People’s Republic of China (PRC) and instead maintained diplomatic relations in Taiwan, recognising that as sole govt of China
* After CW US interest in China seemed to wane
34
# 4
Describe relations with China under Truman's Presidency (post-CW)
* 1949, imposed trade embargo
* Amid possibility of PRC invasion of Taiwan in 1950, Truman sent US 7th Fleet to protect Taiwan Straits
* USA interpreted Korean War as sign of expansionist Chinese-sponsored communism that could threaten US security by aiding global revolutions
* China saw Korean War as display of aggressive nature of USA who was likely to attack China itself
* China once again considered key sphere of influence
35
# 5 + 2
List Cold War developments during Eisenhower's Presidency
* **USSR**
* Hungarian Uprising 1956
* Suez Crisis 1956
* Berlin Ultimatum 1958
* Space race
* Arms race
* **China**
* China relations and Taiwan support
* SEATO 1954
36
# 2
Desribe the Warsaw Pact
* Military alliance of 8 satellite states headed by USSR
* Set up 1955
37
# 4
Describe Eisenhower's Cold War attitude in 1952
* Eisenhower and John Dulles (Secretary of State) dubbed 'Cold War Warriors'
* Won 1952 election by attacking Truman's administration for being 'soft on communism'
* Eisenhower and Dulles talked about ‘rolling back’ on communism (push back as opposed to mere containment) and a ‘massive retaliation’
* Planned to base US defence on nuclear weaponry
38
# 3
Describe Khrushchev
* 1953, Nikita Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as leader of USSR
* Policies a mix of provocation and conciliation
* Events in Hungary confirmed Eisenhower's suspicion of concillatiatory attempts
39
# 3
Describe Khrushchev's provokation policies
* Encouraged West Europeans to halt West German rearmament
* Expanded influence into middle East as USSR spearheaded Egyptian-Czechoslovakia arms deal in 1955
* Created Warsaw Pact in 1955
40
# 4
Describe Khrushchev's conciliatory policies
* returned naval base to Finland in 1956
* reduced Red Army to 0.5 million men
* agreed to talks on agriculture and peaceful use of atomic energy
* May 1955, signed **Austrian peace treaty** - 4 occupying powers retreated and it became neutral and independent state
41
# 6
Describe the events of the Hungarian Uprising 1956
* 1956, Khrushchev began policy of relaxing Stalin-era controls on Eastern Europe
* Moderate Communists in Hungary, led by Imre Nagy, threatened to leave Warsaw Pact and initiate countrywide revolution
* Khruschev sent in tanks to quell rebellion
* 3k rebels killed
* Nagy removed and shor
* Replaced by Janos Kadar, a puppet leader
42
# 5
Describe the significance of the Hungarian Uprising
* US did not intervene in spite of rebel demands
* A more moderate govt could have better contained Communist threat
* Limit to Eisenhower's roll back agenda
* Risks of intervention too high (direct war with Soviets)
* USA preoccupied with Suez which occurred concurrently
43
# 2
Describe how Eisenhower responded to the Suez Crisis
* Imposed financial sanctions on Britain and France to trigger run on currencies and force military withdrawal
* Eisenhower keen to appease Arab nations whose oil and friendship essential elements to containing a Communist bloc expanding its influence over the region
44
# 4
Describe the consequences of the Suez Crisis
* **Eisenhower Doctrine** - extension of containment to middle east
* illustrated Anglo-French dependence on America - America only Western superpower (unlike Sino-Soviet double alliance)
* Egypt and Syria increasingly turned to Soviet military backing
45
# 2
List examples of the Eisenhower Doctrine
* Jan 1957, Eisenhower asked Congress for military and economic aid for any Middle Eastern nation threatened by aggression or subversion
* USA would send support and armaments in subsequent years to Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq and Saudi Arabia
46
# 4
Describe the cause of the Berlin Ultimatum 1958
* revealed that France/Britain/USA used West Berlin for espionage and sabotage
* Soviets reacted strongly to nuclear warheads situated in West Germany
* West refused to recognise legitimacy of East German state
* Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued ultimatum for West to withdraw from Berlin or would block access routes to West Berlin
47
# 4
Describe how Eisenhower reacted to the Berlin Ultimatum 1958
* Mobilised NATO support
* Khrushchev repeatedly extended deadline
* Backed down in March 1959
* Khrushchev state visit in 1959 and Paris Summit in 1960 organised to reach agreement on Berlin
48
# 3
Why did visits/summits to reach a Berlin agreement between Khrushchev and Eisenhower fail?
* No progress made during Khrushchev state visit despite relaxed atmosphere
* May 1960, U2 American spy plane shot down in USSR airspace and pilot Gary Powers captured
* Khruschev exited the Paris Summit after Eisenhower's refusal to apologise
49
# 3
Describe why relations with China continued to deteroriate under Eisenhower
* Eisenhower administration convinced China was Moscow puppet state
* Dulles insisted Chinese Communism was more of a threat than Soviet Communism
* Major Chinese minorities in most politically-unstable Asian countries - growing cultural influence
50
# 3
Describe Eisenhower's action towards China
* Maintained trade embargo on China from 1949-72
* Communist PRC barred from UN until 1971
* Taiwan military support
51
# 4
Describe Taiwanese military support under Eisenhower
* USA established miltary bases in Taiwan
* Sino-American Mutual Defence Treaty of 1954
* Shelling of Quemoy and Matsu in 1955 - Mao backed down after Eisenhower's nuclear threat
* Repeat crisis in 1958 saw Eisenhower order the involvement of US Navy 7th Fleet to protect Taiwanese supply lines
52
# 4
Describe SEATO
* formed 1954
* consisted of US, France, GB, NZ, Australia, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan
* lack of SE nations opened up accusations of imperialistic capitalism
* demonstrated that US officials believed SE Asia to be crucial frontier against communist expansion
53
# 3
What happened to the CIA during Eisenhower's presidency?
* Expanded
* Authorised controversial actions like bribes, subversion and even assassination attempts
* Maintained plausible deniability by concealing evidence of US involvement
54
# 5
Describe aspects of the arms race (1945-60)
* Space race
* Nuclear weapons race
* ICBMs (including submarine developments)
* Navy
* Military spending
55
# 4
Describe the Space Race under Eisenhower
* Soviet Space Agency began operations from 1955
* 1957, Sputnik 1 (Soviet) first artificial satellite successfully placed into orbit - USA behind Soviets in space race
* Eisenhower established NASA in 1958
* Satellite-launching technology essential for more advanced spying capabilities
56
# 4
Describe the nuclear weapons race (1945-60)
* US nuclear monopoly ended by first Soviet detonation in 1949
* Truman promised to develop hydrogen bomb 1000x more potent than atomic bomb
* 1954, tested at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands under Eisenhower after forced relocation of inhabitants
* 1955, Soviets exploded their first hydorgen bomb at Semipalatinsk test site
57
# 3
Describe ICBM developments (1945-60)
## Footnote
ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) - ballistic missile with range greater than 5500 km
* Largely used for nuclear weapons delivery
* First operational ICBM developed by USSR - humiliated America
* First American ICBM tested in 1957 just weeks after
58
# 2
Describe submarine developments (1945-60)
* 1954, US’s first nuclear-propelled submarine operational
* 1960, US tested a missile fired from submerged submarine that could reach any target on globe
59
# 2
Describe US naval expansion (1945-60)
* American shipforce flatlined in nominal expansion
* Yet soviet navy far behind American navy
60
# 4
Describe the growth of the military-industrial complex (1945-60)
* An inevitable result of the nuclear arms race
* Defence spending at $40-50bn a year in 1950s
* 90% US foreign aid went to military spending (armaments and weapons R&D) on allies
* Growth of computer technology (first IBM computer introduced in 1953) saw defence industry become centre of rapidly-advancing technology sector
61
# 4
Describe the location of military contracts (1945-60)
* Desolate Southern desert areas in Arizona and New Mexico became centres of new testing complexes
* Arguably smoothed out economic inequalities in USA
* California particularly benefitted
* Locations reflected whether Senators sat on relevant committees to win such contracts
62
# 2 + 1
List Cold War developments during JFK's presidency
* **USSR**
* Berlin Wall Crisis 1961
* Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* **China**
* early Vietnam support
63
# 3
Describe the construction of the Berlin Wall
* June 1961, JFK met Khrushchev at Vienna Summit
* Khrushchev issued ultimatum to exit Berlin by Dec 1961 or he would transfer Berlin access routes to East Germany
* August 1961, Khrushchev ordered East Germany to construct wall
64
# 2
Why did Khruschev believe he could contruct the Berlin Wall ahead of the utlimatum deadline?
* Believed he could bully inexperienced JFK, esp after Bay of Pigs fiasco
* JFK had made critical error at Vienna Summit in 1961 by stating that US would not oppose creation of wall
65
# 4
Describe the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961
* 27-28 October
* Armed US and Soviet tanks faced off at diplomatic checkpoint (Checkpoint Charlie) for 16 hours
* Triggered by dispute over East Berlin Police checks on US vehicles entering East Berlin (which violated Postdam Conference agreements)
* **'flashpoint event'**
66
# 2
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 was ended
* JFK used backchannels to talk to Khruschev
* Came to mutual agreement to withdraw their respective tanks
67
# 1
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 eased Cold War tensions
* Arguably brought stability by creating 2 Berlins
68
# 4
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 spiked Cold War tensions
* US and USSR resumed nuclear testing
* Soviet propaganda claimed that US inability to prevent construction showed strength
* Khrushchev's encouragement after crisis led him to place missiles in Cuba
* Western propaganda claimed it showed that Communists were forced to wall their citizens inside
69
# 5
Describe the rise of Fidel Castro
* 1959, came to power via bloody revolution with guerilla leader Che Guevara
* had ejected all US business and investment
* in retaliation, USA refused to import Cuban sugar, Cuban's largest export to USA
* 1961, ordered Havana’s US embassy to slim down its 300 member staff - suspected many of them were spies
* USA increased CIA funding for exiled Cuban dissidents in response
70
# 2
Describe the cause of the stationing of Cuban missiles
* Khrushchev keen to extend Soviet influence to Caribbean to outmanoeuvre inexperienced JFK
* Bay of Pigs invasion 1961
71
# 2
Describe the Bay of Pigs invasion 1961
* April 1961, JFK sanctioned invasion of Cuba
* Exiled dissidents who had left in 1959 would land at Bay of Pisg, create national uprising and overthrow Castro
72
# 2
Why did the Bay of Pigs invasion 1961 fail?
* Poor planning
* Castro remained popular in Cuba
73
# 3
Describe the effects of the Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961
* Humilitiation for USA and demonstrated JFK naivety
* End of 1961, Castro announced his conversion to Marxist-Leninist Communism
* Called on Latin America to initiate regional communist revolution
74
# 4
Describe the placing and reveal of missiles in Cuba
* Sept 1962, Soviet technicians began to install ballistic misiles
* would balance US missiles situated in Italy and Turkey
* Oct 1962, American U2 spy plane took photographs which revealed construction of Soviet intermediate range missiles
* Proximity of missiles to Florida seriosuly threatened US security - a ballistic missile launch from Cuba could hit almost all major US city
75
# 6
Describe the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* 2 week 'flashpoint event' crisis - closest world came to nuclear war
* JFK decided to impose naval ‘quarantine’ (though permitted basic foodstuffs, so not full blockade) around Cuba to prevent Soviet missiles arriving
* Khruschev sent letter to JFK insisting that Soviet ships would force their way through blockade and threatened use of nuclear weapons
* Strategic Air Command placed at DEFCON 2 (stage before nuclear war) - only time in history
* Secret negotiations between Robert Kennedy and Anatoly Dobrynin (Soviet ambassador to US) ended crisis
76
# 2
Describe the agreement that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* USSR would remove missiles in Cuba
* USA would **secretly** withdraw missiles from Turkey
77
# 3
Describe what happened the submarine incident in the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* Soviet submarine B-59
* lost connection and picked up supersonic sound of a depth charge believing nculear war to have begun
* 2/3 key commanders opted for nuclear missile launch, yet did not reach unanimous decision
78
# 3
Describe the spike in tensions as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* Seen as victory in US (especially since deal over Turkey was not revealed for some time)
* Led to American overconfidence in Vietnam
* Soviets determined to not back down again and successfully achieved nuclear parity by the end of the decade
79
# 3
Describe the easing of tensions as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
* 24hr hotline telephone link between Kremlin and White House permanently established
* Would avoid lengthy communication by letter in event of future crisis
* **Partial Test Ban treaty 1963** - USA and USSR agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in atmosphere
80
# 3
Describe the first Indochina war
* 1946-54
* Sept 1945, Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam’s independence from France and cpatured Hanoi
* Began war that pitted Ho’s communist-led Viet Minh regime in Hanoi (North Vietnam) against French-backed regime in Saigon (South Vietnam)
81
# 5
Describe the end of the first indochina war
* French defeat at Dien Bien Phu
* **Treaty of Geneva 1954**
* French would leave Vietnam
* Vietnam partioned across 17th parallel until elections could be held
* US prevented elections being held in 1956
82
# 2
Describe North and South Vietnam in the Vietnam War
North Vietnam - communist republic led by Ho Chi Minh
South Vietnam - capitalist republic led by Ngo Dinh Diem
83
# 4
Describe Truman and Vietnam
* Neutral at first but soon acquiesced to French establishment
* Funded over 1/3 of France's war costs by end of Presidency
* Sent 35 military advisers + transport planes/jeeps
* Containment policy to prevent communist victory influenced by domino theory
84
# 3
What prompted Truman's reexamination of Vietnam neutrality?
* Korean War
* Communist/Chinese aid
* Desire to prop up Vietnam economy
85
# 2
Describe the conflciting attitudes of Eisenhower towards Vietnam
* Keen to avoid another SE Asian war after Korean experience
* Though more determined to prevent domino theory
86
# 3
Describe Eisenhower and Vietnam
* Eisenhower spent $2bn in aid in South from 1955-60
* Military advisors increased to 1k
* Fighting had broke out between Diem's forces and Viet-Cong by end of Eisenhower's Presidency
87
# 4
Describe the Strategic Hamlet Policy?
| Began 1962
- Extensive security programme to move rural inhabitants into fortified villages
- More easily protected and segregated from Viet Cong
- Hugely unpopular in Vietnam
- 5k built by Sept 1962
88
# 4
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964
- 2nd August, 1964 US destroyer Maddox was fired at by North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin
- 2 days later there was an alleged second attack but later evidence showed this never happened
- Johnson used this to persuade congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
- Suggested Johnson may have engineered the incident for greater military support
89
# 2
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
- 5 days after first incident
- Gave Johnson the power to use any military measure he thought necessary to defend South Vietnam
90
# 3
Describe how the strengths of the Communists helped defeat the US in Vietnam
- North Vietnamese and Vietcong troops were highly motivated for the reunification of Vietnam
- Vietcong battle tactics and tunnels
- The North Vietnamese and Vietcong were supported by the population in the South and by the Soviet Union and China
91
# 4
Describe the Vietcong battle tactics
- The Vietcong fought a low-tech war using Guerilla tactics
- They avoided head on battles which reduced the effectiveness of the US superior weaponry
- There tactics were much better suited to the jungle terrain of South Vietnam
- Ho Chi Minh trail (Annamite Range Trail)
92
# 3
Describe the Vietcong tunnels
- These tunnels were deep and extensive, used for getting around and sheltering from bombing raids
- They were heavily booby-trapped making them a death trap for US forces and the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam
- The tunnels around Saigon ran for 320km
93
# 2
Describe support for North Vietnam and the Vietcong
- Sympathetic Southerners hid the Vietcong fighters and aided their guerilla tactics
- The USSR and China supplied the North with rockets, tanks and fighters planes
94
# 4
Describe how the weakness of the US forces led to their defeat in Vietnam
- US troops were inexperienced and unmotivated
- Lack of support at home
- US tactics such as Search and Destroy and chemical warfare further encouraged the Southern Vietnamese to turn on them
- The Tet Offensive, 31st January 1968
95
# 4
Describe the My Lai massacre 1968
- A US patrol killed 347 Vietnamese civilians, wiping out the whole village of My Lai
- US military attempted to cover it up but this was unsuccessful
- Lieutenant Calley was found guilty of the murder of 109 people and was sentenced to 20 years hard labour in 1971 (he was released 1973)
- Shocked the US public
96
# 3
Describe the Tet Offensive 1968
- The Vietcong and North Vietnamese launched an attack on over 100 towns and cities in South Vietnam during the New Year
- They even captured the US embassy in Saigon
- This brought further loss to US military morale and further criticism at home
97
# 2
Describe Operation Rolling Thunder
- The US bombing campaign of North Vietnam, lasting 3.5 years from 1965 to 1968
- Aimed to destroy Vietcong supply routes to the South
98
# 4
Describe Operation Trail Dust (Operation Ranch Hand)
- Chemical warfare programme from 1962-71
- ‘Agent Orange’ - highly toxic weed killer used to destroy the jungle
- Napalm - highlly flammable gelling agent
- Estimated 400k deaths due to later health complications
99
# 3
Describe the US 'Search and Destroy' campaign in Vietnam
- 1965, Introduced by Commander Westmoreland
- Entailed using helicopters to descend on villages suspected of assisting Vietcong forces and destroying them
- Referred to by US troops as ‘Zippo’ raids after the the name of the lighters they used to set fire to the thatched houses
100
# 4
Describe the cost of the Vietnam War
- By the time of the Tet Offensive in 1968, more than **36k** of the US military had been killed
- Protests were being held in every major city
- In 1964, the Vietnam war cost the US government less than $0.5bn dollars but by 1968 annual cost was at **$26.5 billion**
- Cost **$168bn** in total
101
# 4
Describe Nixon's **diplomatic** role in US withdrawal from Vietnam
- Vietnamisation failed
- Peace talks began in 1968
- No real progress until Nixon’s visit to China in 1972, after which the Chinese government encouraged more cooperation from the North Vietnam government
- Paris Peace Accords signed 1973
102
# 4
Describe the Paris Peace Accords 1973
- On 23rd January 1973, a ceasefire was signed with the US, followed four days later by a formal peace treaty
- The US promised to withdraw all of its troops and allow Vietcong to keep all captured areas of South Vietnam
- Nixon spoke of '**peace with honor**'
- Within 2 years, the Communists had defeated the South Vietnamese and reunited Vietnam (Fall of Saigon April 1975)
103
# 5
Describe the effects of the Vietnam War
- Cost the US **$30bn each year** of war
- Johnson forced to pull out in 1968
- Encouraged improved Sino-Soviet relations
- Nixon Doctrine
- **60k** US troops killed and **150k** wounded
104
# 2
Describe the change in JFK's Vietnam policy
* Lambasted previous efforts to assist French
* Changed anti-intervention stance in 1960 election amid concerns he appeared soft on communism
105
# 5
Describe JFK and Vietnam
* Provided South with jet fighters, helicopters, armoured personal vehicles
* Authorised Operation Trail Dust and Stategic Hamlet Policy in 1962
* By 1963, military advisors has risen to 16k
* Some advisors participated in secretive military operations themsleves
* Diem assassination
106
# 4
Describe the unpopularity of Diem
* JFK originally a Diem supporter
* 1963, Malcolme Browne, American journalist, captured a Buddhist monk burning himself in Saigon in protest at South Vietnamese persecution of Buddhists
* Sanctioned CIA coup to overthrow his autocratic rule
* Resulted in his assassination 3 weeks later
107
# 3
Outline the factions of the Vietnam War
* Vietminh - military coalition of ICP operational in North that opposed South Vietnam in Vietnam War
* NLF - political/military organisation created in 1960 to overthrow South Vietnam and reunite Vietnam under Communist Government
* Vietcong - guerilla insurgency branch of NLF active in South Vietnam
## Footnote
ICP - Indochinese Communist Party
NLF - National Liberation Front
108
# 2
Describe the start of the Vietnam War
* US sent in troops in 1965 amid fears of inevitable South Vietnam collapse
* by 1967, 500k US troops in South Vietnam
109
# 6
Describe LBJ and Vietnam
* Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964
* Authorised Operation Rolling Thunder
* Search and Destroy campaign
* Tet Offensive 1968
* My Lai Massacre 1968
* Johnson forced to pull out in 1968 election
110
# 3
Describe 'limited war' in Vietnam
* Weaponry used in Vietnam War was restricted
* especially nuclear weapons which were not deployed in Vietnam
* Barry Goldwater suggestion that nuclear weapons could be used in Vietnam in 1964 drew public condemnation with 'Daisy' campaign ad becoming famed
111
# 2
Describe the Ho Chi Minh trail (Annamite Range Trail)
* Logistical network of roads and trails that ran from North to South Vietnam and Laos and Cambodia
* System provided manpower and material support to Viet Cong
112
# 4
Describe Nixon and Vietnam
* Campaigned in 1968 on promise to end Vietnam war
* 'Vietnamisation'
* Banned agent orange and suspended operation trail dust in 1971
* End of war 1973 and fall of Saigon 1975
113
# 4
Describe ‘Vietnamisation’
* Policy of Richard Nixon administration to end US involvement in the Vietnam War.
* Training to 'expand, equip and train south Vietnamese forces'
* Would replace American soldiers with South Vietnamese troops
* Inevitably failed as South Vietnam army was weak and largely depleted
114
# 6
Describe Nixon's escalation to end the Vietnam War
* Operation Menu 1969-70 - secret bombing raids in neighbouring Cambodia
* Operation Barrel Roll 1964-73
* 1970, sent troops into Cambodia
* 1971, sanctioned a similar invasion in Laos
* Dropped 36k tonnage of bombs on North Vietnamese cities in late 1972 - operation linebacker
* All formed futile attempt to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines and destroy Viet Cong camps
115
# 3
Describe the death of Ho Chi Minh
* Died from heart failure in 1969
* Le Duan continued war
* Both held political philosophies of collective leader (distribution of power across Politburo)
116
# 2
How many troops went into Vietnam in total?
* 2.6m total
* 550k at peak
117
# 3
Describe the end of the Korean War
* US lost 27k troops
* 1m Korean citizens died
* Peace of sorts arrived in 1953
118
# 1 + 3
List Cold War developments during Nixon's Presidency
* **USSR**
* 'detente' with USSR
* **China**
* Vietnam developments
* Bombing of Laos and Cambodia
* Closer relations (Ping pong diplomacy, trade embargo, visit to China)
119
# 4
Describe the Nixon Doctrine
* Outlined in July 1969 speech in Guam
* Stated that the US expected its allies to take care of their own military defence
* However USA would assist in development of defence capabilities (e.g. Vietnamisation)
* USA would act as 'nuclear umbrella' when required
120
# 3
Why was detente possible?
- Both US and USSR wanted to limit arms in order to reduce their defence spending (Vietnam War costing $26.5bn annually by 1968)
- Nixon hoped improving relations with the USSR might result in Soviet encouragement the North Vietnamese to end the war
- USSR did not want the US to have closer relations with the Chinese than with them amid Sino-Soviet split
121
# 2
Define detente
* Thaw in Cold War tensions
* The improvement of US-Soviet relations in the years after the Cuban Missile Crisis
122
# 2
List examples of detente with the USSR
* SALT 1 (1972)
* Helsiniki Agreements 1975
123
# 4
Describe SALT 1 (1972)
- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1972
- Imposed limits on nuclear capabilities on US and USSR
- US and USSR restricted to 2 ABM (Anti-Ballistic Missile) complexes, limited to 100 ABMs in each
- First treaty of its kind
124
# 4
Describe the Helsinki Agreements 1975
- The US, USSR and 33 other countries made declarations on 3 main issues
1. The West recognised borders in Eastern Europe and the Soviets accepted the existence of West Germany
2. Agreed to respect basic human rights and freedoms
3. Closer economic, scientific and cultural links
125
# 3
Describe Linkage
* Nixon FP that aimed to persuade Soviets to co-operate in restraining revolutions in the Third World
* in return for economic and nuclear concessions
* Soviet intervention in Angolan Civil War contradicted this policy
126
# 3
Why did Chinese-US relations improve during the 1970s?
- Sino-Soviet ideological split saw USSR relations deteriorate - Mao criticised as revionist
- Nixon hoped relations with China might help end the war in Vietnam as the Chinese were close allies of the North Vietnamese
- Moa wanted to stimulate Chinese trade and industry through American trade
127
# 3
Describe closer relations between China and the USA in Nixon's presidency
* 'Ping Pong Diplomacy'
* 1972, US lifted its long-standing trade embargo with China
* Nixon visited China in 1972
128
# 5
What was 'Ping-pong' diplomacy?
- World Table Tennis Championship held in Japan from March-April 1971
- Glenn Cowan, an American player, missed his teams bus after practice and then offered a lift by the chinese team
- Cowan and Zedong's unlikely friendship widely publicised
- Mao overrided Chinese Department of Foreign Affairs decision to grant all expenses-paid trip for American team in April 1971
- Opened relations and led to Nixon visit to China in 1972
129
# 2
Describe Nixon's China visit
* Visited Shanghai with Kissinger in February 1972
* Shanghai Communique issued - called for nations to normalise relations
130
# 3
Describe the status of Henry Kissinger
* National Security Advisor 1969-75
* Secretary of State 1973-77
* As a political scientist himself, practiced *Realpolitik* - pragmatic approach to conducting diplomacy
131
# 4
Describe the role of Henry Kissinger in the Cold War
* Pioneered 'detente' policy with USSR
* Orchestrated opening of US-China relations
* engaged in 'shuttle diplomacy' to end Yom Kippur War
* Controversially awarded 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in negotiating end to Vietnam War
132
# 3
Describe shuttle diplomacy
* Began in November 1973 following Yom Kippur War
* USA acted as intermediary between Israel and Arab coalition
* Invovled Kissinger successively travelling between opposing forces
133
# 2
Describe the Yalta and Riga Axioms
* Yalta Axiom - negotiations could be done with Stalin
* Riga Axiom - Stalin was murderous dictator who only knows force, could not be negotiated between
134
# 1
Describe Brinkmanship
Pursuit of dangerous policy to force other side to back down (e.g. Cuba, Berlin)
135
# 3
Describe the Clark amendment 1975
* USSR intervened in Angola in 1974
* Congress barred US military involvement in Angola, with Nixon and Kissinger failing to persuade them
* Demonstrated renewed isolationism
136
# 3
Describe the level of support for the Gulf of Tonkin incident
- 85% of public
- All of House of Representatives
- All of the Senate bar 2
