cold war conflicts Flashcards

Question

afghanistan consequences- human cost and displacement

Answer 1

- The Soviet policy of subjugation and Sovietisation aimed at physical extermination with a totalitarian ideology to disrupt Afghanistan’s economic, social, cultural, and religious legacy. - This policy involved the indiscriminate bombing of villages, resulting in extensive physical damage. - Estimates indicate tens of thousands of people were killed, injured, and rendered homeless. Short-term impact: - Between 900,000 and 1.3 million people were killed. - 1.5 million Afghan civilians became physically disabled. - The 1979 census estimated Afghanistan’s pre-war population at 13.05 million, while other reports suggested it was between 15-17 million, including the nomadic population. - The war created an army of orphans and widows, turning half the population into internally displaced persons and refugees, with six million fleeing outside the country. Displacement & Refugees: - In the 1990s, six million refugees lived in destitute conditions, constituting one-third of the pre-war population, forced into neighboring countries like Pakistan and Iran and lived under terrible conditions - moving away from villages meant that Large numbers of people were left without skills, who could have otherwise practiced or learned farming and cottage industries. - Many were denied the ability to learn a trade, engage in agriculture, or manage/herd livestock. - The population of Kabul swelled as rural dwellers sought protection from air attacks. - Families suffered from the loss of income sources previously provided by fathers and sons, leading to financial and social costs, including decreased social welfare. - Women and children faced particular suffering, encountering increasing adversities without traditional familial support, which was especially devastating in Afghanistan's traditionalist and patriarchal society. Long-term impact: - Psychological trauma remains unquantifiable and untreated due to a lack of facilities and personnel alongside stigmatizing culture - The USSR left millions of mines behind, continuing to kill and maim Afghan civilians.

Answer 2

- despite soviet investment in infrastructure the war meant it lacked regular maintenance therefore neglected and personnel were not properly trained to operate machinery By the early 1990s, 60% of schools did not possess a physical structure. - By 1987, agricultural output declined to ⅓ of its 1978 figures due to only 1/2 of land being cultivatable - General destruction accounted for the loss of 1,800 schools, 31 hospitals, 11 health centers, and 14,000 km of telephone cables. - Sharp decline in standard of living and higher prices for imported goods as the Afghan currency fell in value. - Inflation soared: increase of 980% during the 1980s. - Impacted by the mines sown by the Soviets. - Trade deficit rose in 1989 from $69 million to $649 million in 1999. - Foreign debt rose from $1.2 billion in 1980 to $5.1 billion in the same time span.

Answer 3

1. Soviet Withdrawal and Collapse of the Communist Government (Pre-1992) - Significant Soviet support allowed the communist government to maintain power in Kabul until early 1992. - The Afghan War created substantial political instability in the region. - The United Nations attempted, but failed, to establish a transitional process acceptable to all parties. 2. Formation of the Northern Alliance and Initial Conflict (1992) - In February 1992, an alliance of two powerful militias formed the Northern Alliance. - On April 15, 1992, government-aligned militias mutinied and took control of Kabul airport. - President Najibullah sought refuge in the UN compound. - On April 26, the Northern Alliance partners agreed to form a new coalition government, excluding Hizb-i Islami (led by Gulbuddin Hikmatyar, backed by Pakistan). - Hikmatyar launched missile attacks on Kabul. - In June 1992, Burhanuddin Rabbani became president of the Islamic State of Afghanistan (ISA). - Rabbani was re-elected president in December 1992. 3. Escalation into Civil War (1992–1994) - Fighting developed between rival factions, with Hikmatyar continuing strikes on Kabul. - By the end of 1992, thousands had been killed, and half a million residents had fled Kabul. - Armed conflicts between factions emerged from 1992 to 1996, primarily in urban areas, particularly Kabul. - In January 1994, Hikmatyar allied with General Abdul Rashid Dostum to oust Rabbani, launching a full-scale civil war in Kabul. - The increased flow of weapons and military training exacerbated the conflict. - Shifts in alliances among factions complicated the conflict landscape. 4. Rise of the Taliban (1994–1996) - The Taliban emerged in 1994 from US-Saudi-Pakistan-supported mujahideen, quickly gaining territory. - The power vacuum after the superpowers left facilitated their rise. - Ahmad Shah Massoud led the Northern Alliance/United Front against the Taliban from 1996 to 2001, refusing roles offered by them due to ideological disagreements. 5. International and Humanitarian Consequences - The UN continued attempts to find a resolution but lacked international engagement. - The US withdrew from the peace process until after the Taliban took Kabul in 1996. - Displacement of millions resulted in a refugee crisis and humanitarian challenges. - Economic devastation weakened state institutions and governance. - Ethnic tensions intensified as different groups vied for control. 6. Aftermath and Long-Term Impacts - Violence mostly ended around 1996, but ethnic divisions persisted. - Long-term impacts on infrastructure and social cohesion contributed to ongoing conflict. - large power vacuum emerged after Afghanistan withdrawal resulted in armed conflict between factions that emerged in the fighting for power - Taliban emerged from the U.S. Saudi Pakistan supported mujahideen - taliban ideology grew in afghan refugee camps allowing them quickly gain power in 1996 - led to further Cold War tensions , end of SALT II refused to join Moscow Olympics and ended detente restarted Cold War - central committee members tried to distance themselves from Gorbachev decision to send troops into Afghanistan and later denounced Soviet insavsion led to disunity - Gorbachev wanted to withdraw with dignity without foreign influence therefore wanted to stabilize afghan government and allow for the afghan army to slowly take over - gorbachev leadership realized they could fight war due to economic burden of space race and economic hardship therefore - US perished in supporting mujahideen including providing guns and aircraft missiles - when war ended USA largely abandoned Afghanistan which left it to Pakistan for settlement and helped create the taliban which adhere to strict tribal and Islamic rules

Answer 4

Strengths - Founded the Sang Kum movement and became war-appointed head of state after an easy election victory, enjoying widespread support from peasants who viewed him as a god-king from Cambodia’s previous era of greatness. - Avoided getting involved in the Vietnam War, maintaining good relations with both Americans and Chinese. - Fostered good ties with China and allowed Vietnamese communists to set up bases in Cambodia. - Sihanouk was seen as a superstitious figure who was widely revered; his call toward the Khmer Rouge united many. - In the early stages of the war, Sihanouk assisted the Khmer Rouge, claiming they "would not have had the peasants' support without him." - The backing of the peasants, who constituted the vast majority of the population, provided considerable potential recruits for the Khmer Rouge. - educational policy increases educational opportunities but the lack of employment opportunity also led to turn toward communism due to political ferment and over half of peasants were chronically in debt Weaknesses: - His rule became increasingly authoritarian, leading to rising discontent. - Used police and corruption to secure victory in the 1955 elections said that 99.8% of population approved of him a reign of terror - Employed authoritarianism to suppress political opposition on the left. - Closed down free media, limiting public discourse. - Nationalized the economy, resulting in a lack of foreign investment and crony socialism, with state monopolies given to loyal retainers. - Although he followed a policy of neutrality, it frustrated both sides, as Americans perceived it as pro-communist. - After the assassination of Diem in Vietnam, relations soured, and he leaned toward the communists. - This shift led to discontent, prompting Sihanouk to appoint anti-communist general Lon Nol as prime minister in 1967. - Sihanouk attempted to rebuild relations with Americans while ignoring the massive U.S. bombing of Cambodia, which forced communists deeper into the jungles. - Following protests by an estimated 40,000 Vietnamese communists, Lon Nol seized power, and the U.S. recognized his government, leading to a civil war against the Khmer Rouge. - received aid from China but also refused to sign SEATO self indulgent spending 1/5 of annual budget on sea games despite financial crisis - regime was open to bribery and motivated by money venality but also corrupt and nepotistic

Answer 5

- The Lon Nol regime was unpopular, corrupt, and incompetent. - Organized a coup, leading to a quick change in leadership and subsequent instability. - Lon Nol's alignment with the U.S. and the resulting bombings disturbed peasants, making the regime appear weak and dependent on American support. - The government was brutal, suppressing protests and demonstrations, which alienated the population through violence and purges of opponents. - Economic failings resulted in rampant inflation, reaching 300% by the end of 1973, with the economy becoming reliant on limited U.S. assistance. - The economy became largely reliant on US assistance but as America came under pressure to avoid the cost of another intervention in Indochina, congress imposed a tight limit on aid to Cambodia. This was significantly below the military aid requested by Nol, and his economic issues meant that he was unable to purchase supplies or gain foreign credit. - Limited U.S. aid led to a lack of resources and supplies, while corruption further hindered government funding for soldiers. - Militarily ineffective, Lon Nol exhibited poor leadership and sought advice from a monk, undermining military strategy and effectiveness. - Nol’s military leadership was poor. After initial success in the Chenla II campaign the Khmer Rouge rallied and launched overwhelming counter-attacks that led to the loss of 3,000 of Nol’s best trained soldiers and 15,000 desertions. Nol’s intelligence was also ineffective. In September 1970 he called in US airstrikes on 66 training camps which were in fact political meetings in public buildings. His government failed to focus on achievable military objectives, and its actions further alienated the population. - The regime's inability to address the needs and grievances of the populace fueled opposition and discontent. - Widespread dissatisfaction with the government's failure to provide security and stability contributed to the rise of the Khmer Rouge.

Answer 6

- The Khmer Rouge had a clear ideological stance focused on the restoration of former Cambodian glory. - They emphasized the role of peasants as the "true national class," aiming to eradicate foreign and capitalist influence, which gained popularity as peasants benefited from land redistribution. - Under Pol Pot's leadership, the party became more militant and radical, shifting its aims from revolution to political reform. - The Khmer Rouge effectively blockaded Phnom Penh through the Mekong and, in February 1974, destroyed a large government shipment of ammunition. - In 1951, Vietnamese communists, working with Cambodian supporters, formed the Khmer People’s Revolutionary Party (KPRP), intended to be a Cambodian communist party, though initially controlled by Vietnamese communists. - Sar (Pol Pot) joined the KPRP’s central committee in 1960 and became the party’s de facto leader in February 1963. - In mid-1963, Saloth Sar (Pol Pot) and his followers, facing arrest, fled the capital Phnom Penh and relocated to remote northeast Cambodia, linking up with North Vietnamese and Viet Cong allies. - With Vietnamese support, the Khmer Rouge established a base camp. - Pol Pot’s leadership made the party more militant and radical, reforming in 1966 to the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). - The party abandoned traditional Marxist ideology, arguing that the only path to a classless, communal society was to empower Cambodia’s peasant farmers and eradicate all vestiges of Western influence, including intellectualism and technology. - The Khmer Rouge effectively utilized propaganda to promote their ideology and gain popular support among rural populations. - They capitalized on widespread discontent with the U.S.-backed Lon Nol regime, portraying themselves as defenders of Cambodian sovereignty. - Their organizational discipline and guerrilla warfare tactics allowed them to effectively challenge government forces. - The ability to forge alliances with local communities and offer security and stability during turmoil enhanced their appeal. - The Khmer Rouge's promise of land reform and social justice resonated with impoverished peasants, increasing their support base. - They promoted a vision of an agrarian utopia, where the peasant class would lead the nation, rejecting urbanization and modernity. - The ideology included the belief in cleansing Cambodian society of perceived enemies, including intellectuals, professionals, and anyone associated with foreign influence. - The Khmer Rouge sought to create a self-sufficient economy based on agriculture, rejecting foreign aid and investment as detrimental to national pride. historiography: - Revisionist - Khmer Rouge victory can be explained by success of the movement and support internally and externally - more conservative view that emerged in defence of US actions. Like Vietnam, this view acknowledges that although US tactics were misguided, it was the right war to fight. Instead, the success of the Khmer Rouge can be explained by their viciousness and willingness by some like Prince Sihanouk to use them to try to regain power. Support from the PRC and North Vietnam was also hugely influential.

Answer 7

- The war in Vietnam was a crucial factor in the rise of the Khmer Rouge for several reasons. - Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk's attempt to pursue neutrality in the U.S.-Vietnam conflict failed. - The Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh trail crossed into Cambodia as a supply route, prompting over 3,000 B-52 raids by the U.S. in 1969 to attack it. - This destabilized the Cambodian government and led to the coup on March 18, 1970, which removed Prince Sihanouk and established a Western-aligned government led by Prime Minister Lon Nol. - At this point, Khmer Rouge forces numbered only around 10,000. - With U.S. support, Lon Nol sought to destroy the communists in Cambodia, but continued U.S. bombing of Vietnamese forces further undermined government stability. - U.S. bombing campaigns from April to June 1970 pushed Vietnamese forces deeper into Cambodian territory. - Due to the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese established bases in provinces like Stoeng Treng in 1970 and began training Khmer fighters. - Vietnamese forces played a military role in the Cambodian countryside, with 40,000 troops present by 1970, using Cambodia to attack U.S. forces in Vietnam. - By the end of 1971, U.S. intelligence reported that Khmer Rouge forces were not seen as a significant threat compared to the Vietnamese presence in Cambodia. - Vietnamese forces fought alongside the Khmer Rouge, assisting in taking considerable territory in southwest Cambodia by June 1972. - Khmer Rouge dependence on the Vietnamese militarily was evident when failures occurred after the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops in 1972. - When Khmer Rouge forces attempted to take Phnom Penh in the summer of 1973, thousands were killed due to being outgunned. - Aid to the Khmer Rouge resumed only after President Nixon secured a treaty between the U.S. and communist Vietnam. - In early 1974, nearly 1.5 million tons of vital military supplies were distributed from Vietnam to Cambodia, enabling the Khmer Rouge to seize power. - The Khmer Rouge were assisted by Vietnamese communists, even as Pol Pot began purging pro-Vietnamese and pro-Sihanouk cadres. - The Vietnamese provided military and logistical support, establishing bases and training Khmer fighters. - Cambodia's eastern regions were infiltrated and invaded by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops, leading to American intervention and sustained bombing. - This devastation fueled opposition to the U.S.-backed Lon Nol regime and triggered a recruiting surge for the Khmer Rouge. - The destabilization of the government led to the coup that removed Sihanouk and established Lon Nol. - Sihanouk called for the formation of a United Front, urging his supporters to fight the government, effectively supporting the Khmer Rouge. - This resulted in a civil war in Cambodia.

Answer 8

- Aerial and tank attacks in Kampong Cham alienated many Cambodians, resulting in the deaths of 200 people. - An estimated half of the population became refugees, with between 50,000 to 150,000 people killed due to the 3 million tons of bombs dropped. - While the bombing eliminated thousands of NVA, Viet Cong, and Khmer Rouge soldiers, it also killed Cambodian civilians and destroyed homes, farmland, and livestock. - This devastation triggered a recruiting surge for the Khmer Rouge. - The bombing destroyed villages, displaced hundreds of thousands, and turned rural populations against the U.S.-backed Lon Nol regime. - The destruction of infrastructure and livelihoods pushed desperate peasants toward the Khmer Rouge, who positioned themselves as defenders against foreign aggression. - The devastation from U.S. bombings not only killed thousands but also destroyed homes and livelihoods, creating fertile ground for Khmer Rouge recruitment. - Survivors of the bombing harbored deep resentment toward the U.S. and the Cambodian government. - The Khmer Rouge exploited this anger, using anti-American and nationalist propaganda to recruit fighters. - Pol Pot’s forces grew from a few thousand in 1970 to over 200,000 by 1975, partly due to rural support fueled by U.S. attacks. historiography: - Orthodox - Rise of the Khmer Rouge the result of US bombing and spill over from Vietnam War

Answer 9

Vietnam Invasion: Background/Context - The Khmer Rouge period was dominated by terror and paranoia, with Pol Pot aiming to secure his position against all perceived threats. - The greatest threat was seen as coming from Cambodia’s traditional enemy: Vietnam. - Following several border attacks from the Khmer Rouge into Vietnam, Vietnam launched a full-scale invasion of Kampuchea in late December 1978. - Phnom Penh fell on January 7, 1979, and Khmer Rouge leaders fled to the jungle, continuing a guerrilla war against the Vietnamese. - Cambodia was renamed the People's Republic of Kampuchea. Reasons for Conflict - The Khmer Rouge supported a Maoist form of peasant Communism, whereas the Vietnamese followed Soviet-style communism. - The Soviets supported Vietnam, while China supported the Khmer Rouge, leading to rivalry and Chinese concerns about being surrounded by Soviet allies. - There was a desire to revive the glories of the Angkor Empire. - The Khmer Rouge resented how Cambodian territory had been used during the war. - Cambodians feared that Vietnam aimed to unify Indochina under its control. - During 1977 and 1978, the Khmer Rouge conducted brutal attacks across the border into Vietnam, resulting in approximately 30,000 Vietnamese deaths. Invasion by Vietnam - In December 1978, Democratic Kampuchea was invaded by nearly a quarter million soldiers of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. - The Khmer Rouge, lacking foreign allies and an industrial base to support their military, was hopelessly outgunned by Vietnamese aircraft, tanks, and armored vehicles. - Phnom Penh fell to the Vietnamese in just two weeks, forcing Pol Pot and his followers to seek refuge in western Cambodia. - They remained in jungle hideouts for two decades, leading a small but persistent insurgency against the new order. - The Vietnamese eventually withdrew from Cambodia in 1989. - Support for the Khmer Rouge continued to decline, and Pol Pot ultimately died in 1998.

Answer 10

- Wanted to completely demolish capitalism in Cambodia and establish a self-sufficient state (Autarky), independent from the aid provided by China. - Collectivization was introduced in areas under their control in 1973, this was for practical reasons, ensuring food supplies for the armed forces and helping promote control for the population - Most of the Khmer Rouge’s economic policies were stressed during their Four Year Plan, which aimed to replicate the successes of China’s Five Year Plans of mass labor while neglecting industrialization. Cambodia's economic revolution was much more radical and ambitious than that in any other communist country. - Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge became a cashless society; the government confiscated all means of currency. Shops closed, and workers received their pay in the form of food rations, because there was no money in circulation. - Markets and private trade were banned. People were not allowed to buy or sell goods, and all economic activity was controlled by the state. - This policy led to severe shortages of basic necessities, as there was no mechanism for distributing goods effectively. - Urban populations were forcibly evacuated to rural areas, and cities were emptied. People were told that this was to eliminate class distinctions and create a society based on equality, whilst promoting communal living. People ate in communal kitchens and shared resources. Personal possessions were also confiscated. - Urban centers were seen as symbols of capitalism and corruption, so cities were forcibly evacuated, and their populations were sent to rural areas to work in collective farms.

Answer 11

Political System - Cambodia was renamed the Democratic Kampuchea. - Leadership under Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) was less visible compared to other dictatorial regimes; he did not cultivate a personality cult and was referred to as "Brother Number One." - The regime aimed to construct a classless communal society free from foreign influences, middle-class intellectualism, and non-communist ideas. - Cambodia's legal system and courts were virtually abolished; justice was dispensed by Khmer “death squads” and “reeducation camps.” - Pol Pot and his followers declared April 1975 as “Year Zero,” symbolizing a complete reset of society. - Their beliefs echoed some Chinese ideologies, though they denied this connection for reasons of nationalistic pride: - Emphasis on the triumph of human will. - Downgrading of intellectuals. - Sanctity of manual labor and peasantry. - Commitment to collectivization. - Strategy of surrounding cities with a strong rural base. Nationalism - Extreme nationalism was promoted; dissent was deemed unacceptable and punishable by death. - There was strong opposition to foreign intervention. - Individuals who spoke foreign languages or wore glasses were labeled as parasitical intellectuals. - The regime became a closed society, fueled by suspicions of the violent nature of the regime held by the Vietnamese. - Areas near the Vietnamese border were purged because of fears that the Vietnamese could exert control over those regions. Evacuation of Rural Areas - Evacuations were driven by ideological, economic, and military factors: - **Ideological:** Cities were seen as centers of capitalism. - Field laborers were deemed necessary to prevent “imminent” food shortages. - Cities were viewed as vulnerable to military attacks. - Many cities became ghost towns as residents were abruptly ordered to evacuate for three days. - Approximately 2 million residents were deported from overcrowded Phnom Penh under the pretext that Americans were about to bomb the city. - By 1979, roughly 650,000 evacuees died from execution, overwork, disease, lack of medical care, or starvation.

Answer 12

Lifestyle - During the four years of Khmer Rouge rule, between 1.2 and 2.2 million Cambodians and foreigners died, either at the hands of Pol Pot’s murder squads or from starvation and disease. - The regime aimed to eliminate social classes, claiming to boost the lives and rights of peasants. - The only acceptable lifestyle was that of poor agricultural workers; factories, universities, and hospitals were shut down. - Professionals such as doctors and lawyers were considered a danger to the regime. - Marriage partners were chosen by the state, with forced marriages occurring frequently. - Individuals could not choose their clothing or place of work. - The population lived in villages administered as cooperatives, with families often separated and children placed in labor camps. - There were no civil rights; personal freedoms were severely restricted. Education - Schools and colleges were closed, and formal education was abolished in 1977. - Children aged 8 and older were taken to labor camps for reeducation, as they were seen as easily moldable and indoctrinable. - Intellectuals and urbanites were targeted for execution; approximately 85% of teachers and 95% of intellectuals were killed. Religion - Loyalty to the state was prioritized over family and religion. - All forms of religion were banned, along with music, radios, money, jewelry, gambling, private property, and most reading materials. - The Muslim Cham were viewed as a threat to uniformity due to their opposition to communal eating; about 100,000 of 250,000 Cham peasants were killed or worked to death by January 1969. - Islam, Buddhism, and any religions practiced by ethnic Khmers were outlawed; Khmer Krom (ethnic Khmers in Vietnam) faced massacres between 1975 and 1977. - Hill tribes were accepted, contrasting with the treatment of other ethnic groups. Healthcare - Healthcare infrastructure was destroyed, with healthcare equipment, supplies, and personnel nearly obliterated. - By 1979, only 45 medical doctors remained, of whom 20 chose to leave the country; there were just 26 pharmacists, 28 dentists, and 728 medical students at that time. - Rampant malnutrition led to an estimated 90% of women stopping menstruation. - The number of births declined by 570,000 over the four-year regime.

Answer 13

International Response - The Paris Peace Accords were signed by 19 countries and included the formation of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC). - Although the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea ended the genocide and suffering, Vietnam faced widespread condemnation from the international community and was itself threatened with invasion. The United Nations recognized the Khmer Rouge as the legitimate government of Kampuchea. Cold War Politics - The USSR and China were hostile to each other, while China and the USA experienced improved relations. - On one side were the Soviet Union, Vietnam, the Soviet Bloc countries, and the new Cambodian government led by Hang Samrin. - On the opposing side were China, the United States, Thailand, Singapore, and most other Western countries. - USA: After its defeat in the Vietnam War, the U.S. could not tolerate any increase in Vietnamese power. - Thailand: Viewed itself as the dominant economic power in Indochina and perceived Vietnam as a potential threat. - ASEAN Nations: Concerned about Vietnamese expansion increasing the Soviet Union's influence, they worried about a strong Communist Vietnam allied with the USSR. - Australia: Followed U.S. policy and stopped all aid to Kampuchea. - Impact on Cambodians: The removal of the Khmer Rouge did not lead to immediate improvements in living conditions. Famine struck in 1979, forcing many to flee to the Thai border, where refugee camps were established. - The international community eventually recognized the famine's severity and sent aid, but they were reluctant to send it directly to Phnom Penh and the Vietnamese. - Although Vietnamese troops were initially welcomed as saviors in 1979, their prolonged presence (with 200,000 troops remaining) led to perceptions of them as invaders, a view promoted by the U.S. and the UN. The influx of Vietnamese settlers into Cambodia revived historical fears of Vietnamese expansion. Vietnamese Withdrawal: - A struggling Vietnamese economy. - The impact of Perestroika in the Soviet Union, which limited Soviet financial support for Vietnam's war in Cambodia. - Promises from the U.S. to initiate diplomatic relations with Vietnam upon withdrawal, which Vietnam hoped would lead to trade agreements. - A belief that the Khmer Rouge were no longer strong enough to reclaim power in Cambodia. - Vietnam had suffered significant casualties during the invasion, with 55,000 dead and 60,000 wounded. elections - In 1991, a temporary coalition government was formed, and a peace agreement was signed between opposing parties. Elections were scheduled for 1993, resulting in the election of Prince Sihanouk, who later entered a power-sharing agreement with the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) and Hun Sen - 90% election turn out showed strong desire for change among population - the coalition formed however there was still political unrest and violence between coalition partners leading to instability - Pol Pot continued to lead the Khmer Rouge as an insurgency until 1997 when he was arrested and placed under house arrest. The organization persisted until 1999, by which time most members had defected, been arrested, or died.

Answer 14

- One of the main preconditions of the first Indochina revolution was the frustration with the actions of the French as colonizers. - had been seeking to overthrow the french colonial rule for decades, japanese occupation from 1940-45 created a power vacuum, liberating large parts of vietnam from japan meant that vietminh became powerful enough to decalre independence, yet return of french meant they refused to grant independence - Violations and oppression of Vietnamese citizens, along with the lack of free and equal rights, wrecked Vietnam’s national unity arising from the uprising. - Economic exploitation included forcing the population to use opium and alcohol, robbing raw materials, and imposing unjustified taxes, leaving the peasantry in extreme poverty. - This exploitation increased widespread public dissent and set the stage for the growth of Vietnamese nationalism as a political force seeking to fight against French occupation. - There was inherent frustration over the French siding with fascists, as many Vietnamese believed they deserved the right to freedom and independence after fighting alongside the Allies against fascism. - This state of discontent united the Vietnamese people, leaving them determined and mobilized to resist French rule, both physically and mentally. - The Japanese occupation removed the French from power, creating a power vacuum. - This allowed Ho Chi Minh’s Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) to play a key role in forming the anti-Japanese resistance, effectively controlling all of northern Vietnam by June 1945. - belief in their right to self determination and decolonization, result of Roosevelt - Truman impact due to WW2 and changing cw dynamics - promises post war hinting at possibility of granting independence

Answer 15

- Young Vietnamese activists like Ho Chi Minh became radicalized after the failure of the Versailles Peace Conference to grant self-determination to Vietnam. - Ho Chi Minh was seen as a patriot who cared for ordinary Vietnamese people, with his land, educational, and health programs winning over the peasantry. - Japanese occupation from 1940 to 1945 set the stage for the Indochina War by removing the French from power and positioning Ho’s Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) as a key player in the anti-Japanese resistance. - The Japanese removal of French colonial forces in March 1945 created a political vacuum in Indochina, allowing the Vietminh to recruit additional soldiers and effectively control all of northern Vietnam by June 1945. - The vietminh was poised to take surrendered Japanese troops and declare independence; however, the Allies agreed to divide Vietnam at Potsdam. British and French forces landed in southern Vietnam, restoring French authority and ignoring the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). - The failure to recognize Ho Chi Minh’s DRV put France on a collision course, facilitated by British support. Without British forces, the French might not have returned. - The U.S. complicated matters by failing to support Vietnamese independence, despite Ho Chi Minh's appeals to President Truman. - Despite promises during the Second World War to support independent nations and Roosevelt's anti-imperialist stance, Truman supported the French return to Vietnam. - The growing Cold War and Red Scare made it politically impossible for Truman to abandon France. By 1946, French forces had regained all of southern Vietnam and were planning to take the north. - Heightened nationalist sentiment and the power vacuum left by the removal of French forces were key catalysts for the First Indochina War. The Vietminh gained increased power and influence as the sole opposition to the Japanese. - The Allies' failure to recognize the DRV made conflict imminent, especially amid the breakdown of peace talks regarding full independence. - Fears that full independence for Vietnam would spread communism in Asia led the Allies to support the French, who were important NATO allies.

Answer 16

- Attempting to avert war, Ho Chi Minh began political talks with France in March 1946. Realizing the impossibility of fighting France, Ho agreed to French control of Indochina with 15,000 troops, and Vietnam would become part of the French Union. - In return, the French promised to recognize the DRV as a free state with its own government and army. However, talks broke down in September 1946 when the French refused to consider full independence. - With the Vietminh government of the DRV refusing to accept French colonial control, armed struggle seemed imminent. - Fighting eventually broke out in the northern port of Haiphong in November 1946. - On 20th November, seizing a Chinese junk suspected of smuggling into Haiphong, in response the Vietnamese fired upon the French ship. The French issued an ultimatum to the Vieminh demanding disarmament, this resulted in the Vietnamese forces beginning a preemptive attack as they viewed the demand as a threat which heightened the urgency amongst the Vietminh to respond militarily. - Fearing an attacking on DRV capital of Hanoi, Vietnamese forces began a pre-emptive attack on the French on 19th December 1946. Lasting over a month, the Battle of Hanoi saw Vietminh forces defeated. - on 28th November, the French navy began shelling the city, killing 6,000 civilians and then occupying Haiphong.

Answer 17

- The Vietnamese National Army (ANV) of 150,000 only had about ¼ of units which had tactical mobility. - Many units remained understrength and ill-trained due to political opposition to the war in France. - There were constant equipment shortages and forces relied on ex-WW2 material. - Metropolitan and colonial volunteer regiments relied on just 300 artillery guns. The air force was heavily relied upon with the helicopter fleet totalled only 32. - French-led forces in Indochina were held together by string and sealing wax. Ill-paid professionals rather than conscripts, they were weak in manpower, madly juggling their best forces round by road and air to stem an advance here, extricate a unit there, or, in yet another location, to seize some opportunity which suddenly presented itself. - They were weak in equipment, much of it distinctly secondhand, and where it was new, inexperienced and inadequately trained in its use, particularly the case with aircraft. - Some of the French generals were competitive and even quarrelsome. - There were constant leadership changes, making it challenging for troops to cope with the tactics employed by each leader - At some point, General Salan was even caused the french forces to become increasingly isolated and surrounded in the delta region - In the United States, those who later made the decision for war saw Dien Bien Phu, where the French succumbed defeat as a result of tactical errors an indication of French weakness rather than of Viet Minh strength. (Windrow) - The French Far East Expeditionary Corps (CEFEO) began the war as a conventional army, ill-equipped compared to the VM’s use of guerilla warfare. - War Weariness - Popular discontent with the war was increasing in France where it was known as the ‘dirty war’ by the left. The government refused to allow conscription to support the war effort yet was unwilling to make political concessions to end the war. - French Strategy - The French failed to realise the importance of hearts and minds and winning over the native population. Instead, French strategy focused on winning set piece battles at isolated strongpoints such as the Battles of Cao Bang and Dien Bien Phu. This left their forces exposed, overstretched, and isolated. - French Force Structure - The CEFEO compromised mostly poorly-trained colonial troops led by French volunteer officers. The lack of manpower meant French offensives were limited in scope. Heavy armour was useless in the terrain and airpower was often grounded due to poor weather. Leadership was inconsistent, with 6 Generals within 7 years. historiography Orthodox historians argued that the French were to blame for losing this war. Their military strategy was weak. They did little to win hearts and minds and failed The French-led forces in Indochina were Ill-paid professionals rather than conscripts, they were weak in manpower. They were weak in equipment, much of it secondhand, and where it was new, inexperienced and inadequately trained in its use (Windrow)

Answer 18

- The Viet Minh, led by General Vo Nguyen Giap, avoided direct confrontation with the better-equipped French forces. Instead, they relied on hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, sabotage, and raids. This strategy wore down French morale and resources. - viet Minh fighters blended into the rural population, receiving food, intelligence, and shelter from peasants. This made them nearly impossible to eradicate. - By 1953–54, the Viet Minh shifted to large-scale conventional warfare, culminating in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), where they successfully besieged and destroyed a fortified French garrison. - Viet Minh Strengths - Viet Minh guerrilla tactics utilised the physical geography of the country. They would make surprise attacks then retreat to the jungles and mountains which were enveloped by monsoon mists half the year. In contrast, road-bound French armoured columns struggled on Vietnam’s frequently flooded dirt tracks. The Viet Minh also fought for an inspiring cause, Vietnamese freedom and social justice. - As the leader of the Viet Minh and the Communist Party, Ho Chi Minh was a unifying figure who framed the war as a nationalist struggle against colonialism, not just a communist revolution. His charisma and propaganda efforts kept morale high. - Ho’s Popularity - In late 1951, a US official pointed out the unpopularity of the French puppet emperor, Bao Dai whose government ‘has no appeal… to the masses’. Ho was seen by many as a patriot who cared about ordinary people. His fairer policies of redistribution of land and education and health-care programmes helped win over the peasantry. - Loss of the Border - The 1950 Border Campaign ended in the Battle of Route Coloniale 4 where the French lost control of the Vietnam-China border. This left Viet Minh supply lines from China completely uncontested, and enabled the Viet Minh to rearm and retrain their regular forces in the Viet Bac and Thai Highlands. - The Viet Minh redistributed land to peasants, winning rural loyalty. Their propaganda framed the French as foreign oppressors, reinforcing nationalist resistance. - Giap was a master strategist who adapted tactics based on the situation. His willingness to learn from mistakes (e.g., early failed offensives in 1951) and his ability to organize logistics (such as transporting artillery to Dien Bien Phu) were crucial. - Giap’s Leadership - Vo Nguyen Giap was a strategic genius who implemented Mao’s approach to guerrilla warfare. Comparing the French to an elephant and his forces as a tiger, he sought to surround and overstretch the enemy before switching to more conventional mobile warfare after 1950. By 1952, he commanded over 250,000 regular soldiers and 2 million militia. - Many Vietnamese saw the Viet Minh as fighting for independence, not just communism. France’s brutal tactics (e.g., aerial bombing, forced relocations) alienated the population and drove support to the Viet Minh. - Political Indoctrination - Motivated by a patriotic cause, the Viet Minh were willing to suffer for their country and their freedom, marching over mountains and through jungles, often with insufficient food. Units held self-criticism sessions, during which errors were admitted and forgiven. Giap paid great attention to winning over the ordinary people. - Logistical Support - Each Viet Minh division was supported by over 40,000 porters carrying rice or ammunition along jungle trails and over mountain passes. Many porters were unmarried women, the so-called ‘long-haired army’ whom the Viet Minh found more effective than the male porties because they were easier to train, had no family ties and were seen as less threatening by the enemy. Dien Bien Phu: - Giap in December 1953 ordered the bulk of his forces to move from the Tonkin delta to surround the Dien Bien Phu valley. He considered a decisive attack against this base to be war-winning - the success of Navarre’s strategy was based on it. - By March 1954, the French base at Dien Bien Phu was surrounded. The VM had used over half a million porters to supply their 50,000 strong forces in a 500 mile supply chain. 200 artillery guns and 20 anti-aircraft guns were secretly setup to attack the 20,000 strong French garrison. - On 27th March 1954, the bombardment began, immediately destroying the French airfield and preventing resupply. Holding out until May, the outpost was overwhelmed. - the huge defeat at Dien Bien Phu was a psychological turning point. The French government realised they couldn’t win, decreased US support - pre-planned Geneva Conference beginning on 8th May, the French negotiating position was severely weakened. The VM insisted on French withdraw from Indochina. China feared continuing the war would only draw in the US, whose United Action plan was calling for Western intervention. - In the end, the Geneva Accords accepted Zhou Enlai’s proposals to a ceasefire, to divide Vietnam at the 17th parallel and arrange reunification elections in 1956. historiography: - Revisionist - The Viet Minh won this war Although the French made huge mistakes, focusing on this hides the fact of Viet Minh strengths. Ho and Giap’s strategy was successful and Viet Minh tactics outclassed the French.

Answer 19

- After 1950, China supplied artillery, rifles, machine guns, and ammunition (mostly captured from defeated Nationalist forces or Soviet-supplied). - Chinese generals trained Viet Minh troops in conventional warfare tactics, crucial for battles like Dien Bien Phu (1954). - The Viet Minh used southern China as a rear base for training, medical care, and resupply. - Before 1949, the Viet Minh were mostly a guerrilla force. - After 1949, they could wage large-scale conventional warfare, leading to victories like the Border Campaign (1950) and Dien Bien Phu (1954). - Zhou convinced them to accept a temporary partition at the 17th parallel, arguing: The Viet Minh lacked the strength to take the South immediately, A prolonged war risked U.S. intervention (like in Korea), Elections in 1956 would likely favor the communists anyway. - Zhou held secret talks with French PM Pierre Mendès France, offering concessions to speed up a deal. - He reassured Western powers that China did not want war in Indochina, easing fears of communist expansion. - zhou therefore supported communism but avoided reckless expansion and diplomacy helped to avoid direct clashes in vietnam - The USSR did not directly intervene but supplied China with weapons, some of which were passed to the Viet Minh. Soviet political and diplomatic support at the UN helped legitimize the Viet Minh as an anti-colonial movement. - The Soviet-China alliance ensured a steady (if modest) flow of modern arms. Soviet propaganda framed the war as part of the global struggle against imperialism, boosting Viet Minh morale. - the U.S. initially supported France (financing 80% of the war by 1954) to contain communism in Southeast Asia. But… French Weakness Backfired: U.S. aid propped up an unpopular colonial regime, alienating Vietnamese nationalists and driving many toward the Viet Minh. Geneva Conference (1954): The U.S. opposed French negotiations but failed to prevent Vietnam’s temporary division, setting the stage for later U.S. involvement. - Lack of US support - Despite funding over 75% of the French war effort, President Eisenhower was unwilling to escalate the US military involvement in Vietnam. He had just won the election having promised to end the Korean War. The British refused to support US airstrikes to help the French and some in the US feared antagonizing the Chinese. - foreign influence did not win the war for the Viet Minh, but it accelerated their victory by providing critical resources after 1949. The core reasons for their success remained nationalism, guerrilla-to-conventional adaptability, and leadership (Ho Chi Minh & Giap)—foreign aid merely amplified these strengths.

Answer 20

- Predominant perspective that the US government got involved in Vietnam little by little, one step at a time. Eventually, the country was mired in the conflict and couldn’t get out. - Schlessinger argued that American presence in Vietnam was the result of “the triumph of the politics of inadvertence” and that the war itself was a “tragedy without villains - Rejects domino theory and emphasizes that Vietnam lacked strategic significance in Cold War - By the end of 1960, Eisenhower had stood down after two terms as President. Diem’s regime in South Vietnam was as unpopular as ever and losing the war - the Viet Cong were estimated to be supported by 75% of all villages. - It can be argued that Vietnam was Eisenhower's war. He ignored the Geneva Accords, instead promoting a rollback of communism by seeking to setup an anti communist state in the South. - He ignored Diem’s authoritarianism, increased military and economic aid, and placed the US in a commitment trap. - In 1961 President Kennedy was faced with a tough choice. He could either continue to support a failing regime, withdraw US support completely, or replace Diem’s regime with a more democratic and popular leader. - - By 1953 Truman had given $3 billion to France. Eisenhower had given $7 billion to Diem. Vietnam and SE Asia’s raw materials were vital to world trade. The US was committed economically to this. historiography: - orthodox opinion

Answer 21

- Marxist historiography differs in a crucial way from the orthodox liberal realist narrative because it is rooted in the notion of inevitability - in this case the assumption that the United States as the world’s leading capitalist power was driven by imperialist economic imperatives to intervene in Indochina to stop the advance of Communism and/or radical nationalist movements. - This determinism in effect renders moot any discussion of what the United States might or should have done by denying the possibility of alternative options its policy makers might realistically have chosen - American expansionism played a role in the Vietnam War as the U.S. sought to maintain its global influence and protect its economic interests. - There was an increased focus on containment, with Eisenhower articulating his "domino theory," which posits that if one Southeast Asian country falls to communism, others would follow, reducing U.S. access to raw materials and foreign labor markets. - US military strategy was based on containment and the domino theory - if the RVN fell, then war would come eventually to other nations. The US had to keep up the credibility of its deterrence across the world - military failure would embolden insurgencies elsewhere. - Containment was seen as a necessary response to the global Communist threat, with Vietnam becoming a key Cold War front. - Eisenhower viewed the Geneva Accords as a communist victory and responded by creating the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) to protect South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. - The U.S. sought to circumvent the Geneva stipulation that prohibited Vietnam from entering foreign alliances or hosting foreign troops by establishing SEATO, which indirectly supported these countries without violating the treaty's terms. historiography: - The revisionist narrative defends the application of America's Cold War policy of containment to Vietnam, a policy initiated during Harry Truman's presidency. - The war was part of a broader strategy to assert U.S. dominance in the face of communist expansion and to ensure that Southeast Asia remained aligned with Western capitalist interests.

Answer 22

end of colonial rule: - truce between the french and the vietminh, nationwide democratic elections held in 1956 and vietnam reunified - geneva conference resulted in french forces agreeing to withdraw, ended nearly a century of french colonial dominance in the region - communists govern nrthern vietnam from hanoi and diem would govern southen vietnam, divided at the 17th parallel - the stuggle against colonialism galvanysed support for communist ideologies, promised independence and social reforms - however communist regime in north was as unpleasant as diem in south, Ho chi ming's PAVN put down revolut in 1956, 6000 peasants killed or deported - US broke the spirit of these Accords by building up an anti communist regime in the south, appointed ngo dinh diem as prime minister, his power rested in rich landowning class who were predominantly catholic, reversed 1945 land reform which forced peasants to purchase their land - Government became corrupt and dominated by Diem and his cronies, including his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu who became his chief political advisor. Diem used his power to destroy what remained of the communist underground. - In 1956, his ‘Denounce the Communists’ campaign reduced an estimated 10,000 Viet Minh supporters in 1955 to around 2,000 in 1959. Re-education, mass arrests and executions were the primary methods. - Despite the warning signs, the US continued to support Diem, with President Eisenhower inviting him to tour the US in 1957 and claiming he was the “miracle man of Asia”. - By 1961, Eisenhower had provided over $7 billion in aid. Diem ignored US calls for ‘democratic reforms’. - Once France had freed itself from the powder keg that was Indo-China, it lost an important part of its colonial prestige, fuelling the independence movements already active in French North Africa. - Dramatic loss of French colonial control, French authority in indochina collapse triggering a crisis of confidence within the French government and military, leading to widespread political turmoil - Exacerbated existing political divisions within France

Answer 23

- The war and subsequent internal conflicts forced thousands to flee their homes, especially in rural areas - As war continued there was more discontent for the war from the French public There was lack of popularity for the french puppet emperor Bao Dai whose government has “no appeal whatsoever to the masses” - The war in france was known as “drity war” by the left. The government refused to allow conscription to support the war effort yet was unwilling to make political concessions to end the war - Diem’s government of South Vietnam (non-communist regime), Policies emphasis on military solutions rather than social and economic reform that dominated US assistance to Diem - Diem favoured his fellow Catholics from the wealthy landowner class (not appealing to ordinary people), Viet Minh advocacy of greater economic equality could win so many peasant hearts - Diem disliked meeting his people, was reluctant to tour South Vietnam at the behest of his American patrons who rightly feared he lacked ‘common touch’ - Hanoi’s conservatism gave Diem the opportunity to arrest/execute many southern Communist activists (dropping from 10,000 in 1955 to near 2000 by 1959) - Forcing the South’s Communists into open revolt and by 1960 Hanoi had decided to give liberation equal priority with consolidation - The Strategic Hamlet Program was implemented in 1962 to isolate rural populations from communist influence by relocating peasants into fortified hamlets. - The program was unsuccessful, leading to increased resentment and contributing to the growth of the Viet Cong's influence. - It was canceled after President Ngo Dinh Diem's overthrow in November 1963.

Answer 24

- Both rural and urban areas were ruined, the economy shattered and the people exhausted Vietnam remained one of the poorest nations in the world for the twenty years following the end of the war - Diem promised a land reform programme, but proved ‘uncommitted to it’ = Long An province (near Saigon) fewer than 1000 out of 35,000 tenants received property - Diem infuriated peasants demanding payment for land they had been given for free in the war against the French - The US was impressed by the way Diem’s ruthlessness in dealing with opponents, the Eisenhower administration provided economic aid of hundreds of millions of dollars - In May 1950, President Truman offered $10 million in support of the French military effort, which increased to $100 million by December 1950. This aid covered nearly 80% of the French war costs. - The U.S. provided significant military aid, including $385 million worth of armaments under Eisenhower, to support the French against the Viet Minh. - Despite U.S. aid, the French threatened to exit the Indochina War if American support was not maintained. - The war cost the French government three billion francs, with France paying about 70% and the U.S. covering the remainder. - The U.S. refused to intervene directly by launching an air strike at Dien Bien Phu, which contributed to the French defeat and led to their decision to withdraw from Indochina.

Answer 25

- Opposition to the war in the US grew as the conflict dragged on. - During the Tet Offensive, 84,000 VC troops switched to conventional warfare and launched simultaneous attacks across all major cities throughout South Vietnam including the US embassy in Saigon. The public nature of the offensive, having been playing live on TV, heavily depleted the support of the general public as the US forces struggled to contain the uprising - acted as a huge psychological blow for the US as previous dissent on the conflict dragging on and the draft falling mostly on young ethnic minorities had already garnered significant backlash. - credibility gap between what the political figures had promised and the reality of the progress in Vietnam had been exacerbated by the Tet Offensive and undermined the general public’s support and trust in President Johnson and his seemingly contradictory policies - By striking everywhere at once, it seemed as if the VC were winning the war. - It led Johnson to decide that he wouldn’t stand for re-election that year. In fact, in March 1968 he admitted defeat by refusing to increase troop numbers, ended Operation Rolling Thunder, and replaced General Westmoreland with General Abrams. - US didn’t officially declare war, and the draft fell mostly on young ethnic minorities. - New forms of media reporting further eroded public support. - War aims had no definite end, and the public couldn’t understand the nature of the war. - cost of war being over $20 million a year, the government’s policy strayed away from the domestic social and economic issues and the “great society” reforms, instead much more weight was put upon the funding of the war leading to the US deficit rising from $1.6 billion in 1965 to %25.3 in 1968 - March 1968 Johson’s approval rating had dropped to 36% as it became clear that a credibility gap - Conscription alienated thousands of people as did the use of torture in Operation Phoenix. - Divisions in government emerged from 1967 with Robert McNamara resigning. - casualties mounted and media portrayals became increasingly negative, large-scale- protests emerged across the country. In particular, by 1967, over 70,000 protested against the war in Washington, and in 1968 riots occurred at the democratic national convention - significantly depleted morale amongst political leaders and troops alike - US forces relied on strategic airpower to airlift forces into the jungle in search and destroy missions. This enabled rapid deployment but lost the element of surprise which was vital to capture VC. The overuse of airpower only alienated civilians. - US failed to use its full capabilities. Seeking not to escalate the war, US airpower was restrained against the North until the use of B-52 bombers against Hanoi during Operation Linebacker in 1972. historiography: - revisionist viewpoint that the US defeat in the Vietnam War was inevitable due to the lack of adequately planned military strategies and the overall weakness of political leadership. While it could be argued that their military superiority gave them a substantial advantage over their opposition, the US lacked focus on the wider strategic defeat despite success in tactical victories.

Answer 26

- misjudged the conflict due to hubris this therefore led to the failure in strategic planning as they misapplied a policy of containment in Vietnam. In particular, the failure of General Westmoreland’s war of attrition strategy meant that the strategy was militarily ineffective and failed to win the “hearts and minds” of the people. - Having believed that the war could be won in 3 years, the strategy was tested in the Battle of La Drang in October 1965 where the US had been surrounded and forced to flee to Cambodia. - by mid-1967, it became clear that attrition had failed as they struggled to secure territory leading to the reinforcement of 200,000 VC in 1968. - Although the US won most battles, VC/PAVN losses could be more easily replaced. US losses only increased protest. The US was also fighting a limited war, failing to invade the North, - while the attrition tactics had sought to find and eliminate the Viet Cong in rural areas, the failure of the troops to identify the VC from the civilians meant that there were significant civilian casualties. To the general public, this represented the notion that the tactics had been more effective in killing people than in protecting them. - The bombing of the DRV failed to disrupt the rural economy enough, and failed to interdict supplies along the Ho Chi Minh trail. - Most weapons and supplies were imported from PRC/USSR, therefore couldn’t be targeted. Use of airborne defoliants in the South like Agent Orange only alienated Vietnamese peasants further, with ⅓ of peasants moving to urban areas. historiography: - orthodox, containment misapplied in vietnam, the US misjudged the internal dynamics of conflict, wrongly supporting south vietnam and placing itself in the midst of a civil war - wrongly conceived from ignorance and hubris, therefore inevitable defeat

Answer 27

- Guerilla warfare tactics were hugely successful. Surprise attacks, booby traps, use of jungle cover, and use of extensive tunnel systems enabled the Vietcong to choose engagements carefully, maintaining the initiative. - This negated US technological superiority. It also relied on working with peasants for food and intelligence, winning hearts and minds. The VC were also aided by knowing the terrain they were fighting in. - Vietcong and PAVN troops were dedicated to national independence and social reform via communism. Land reform wedded troops to the regime. Political education was extensive amongst units, and self criticism encouraged. Military and ideological discipline was high. - The Viet Cong used hit-and-run attacks and ambushes to harass US forces, often blending into the civilian population to avoid detection. This made it difficult for the US to distinguish between combatants and non-combatant - Giáp was particularly skilled in logistics, as evidenced by his development of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a complex network that allowed the North Vietnamese to supply troops and materials across the border into South Vietnam - demonstrated adaptability in military tactics, shifting from rapid attacks to more cautious strategies when necessary. - renowned for his strategic brilliance, combining conventional and guerrilla warfare tactics effectively. - The Tet Offensive, launched in January 1968, aimed to spark a general uprising against the South Vietnamese government and demonstrate that the US could not win the war. Although it failed to achieve its military objectives, it was a significant political victory for the North Vietnamese - The offensive involved simultaneous attacks on major cities across South Vietnam, including the US embassy in Saigon. - led to the erosion of public trust - Throughout the war the North were supported by China and the USSR. $2 billion USD was received by the DRV in supplies, including MiG jets, 8,000 anti aircraft guns and 200 anti-aircraft missile sites. 320,000 PLA soldiers helped with logistics in North Vietnam. - The Soviets gave 1,216 million roubles. But VC/PAVN soldiers did most of the fighting - At the start of the conflict, the Vietcong only numbered around 40,000 guerillas, reaching a peak of 400,000 by 1968. They were supported by 300,000 highly-trained regular troops of the PAVN. Against them, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) numbered almost one million soldiers. historiography: - post revisionist, north vietnamese strategy of people's war united vietnamese, had superior motivation and willingness to sacrifice - nationalistic communist system more popular than the south's capitalist system

Answer 28

- Shortly after the US left, the north Vietnamese took over the country entirely. The newly unified Vietnam was reunited as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Le Duan became the leader of Vietnam, his view of socialism was statist, highly centralised and managerial, especially in agriculture. - “Reeducation” camps were set up for enemies of communism and supporters of the previous south vietnamese government. - A personal dossier/written biography was kept of everyone to determine if they should be considered for reeducation. - Those whose records were ‘good’ had better job opportunities or access to university education. - Media, schools and religious institutions were brought under government control, Christianity was viewed most suspiciously, some institutions were closed, portraits of Ho Chi Minh were put on altars. All of Vietnam’s government remains communist today. - The fall of Saigon triggered a massive refugee crisis, with hundreds of thousands fleeing Vietnam, seeking asylum in other countries USA: - War Powers Act: - now required congressional approval of any overseas troop deployment Challenged US exceptionalism: - prior to the war, they believed that they were the strongest nation, led by well-meaning people, saving democracy from the hands of tyrants - military victory (in most battles) meant that the loss of the war was due to a wider failure of political policies and national morale Political leadership and effectiveness of military questioned - defeated, leaders lied about winning, soldiers committed atrocities - chose the wrong cause, wasn’t the saviour but a meddlesome bully in Vietnam (My Lai Massacre, claiming that a US ship was attacked in order to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) - national mistrust “Vietnam Syndrome” Testing the Vietnam Syndrome: - Reagan’s small invasion of Grenada (1983), a tiny island just north of Venezuela, with 6000 soldiers, awarding 8700 medals for their bravery - President H. W. Bush’s Gulf War (1991), Vietnam Veteran generals, quick and ruthless strategy with achievable aims, Bush proclaimed “By God, we’ve kicked the Vietnam Syndrome once and for all!” - Fear of another Vietnam in the ‘war on terror’ after 9/11 Trauma of Vietnam Veterans - vets saw more combat that WW2 in a shorter time, and was abruptly brought home in defeat - poor veteran care, government denied vets suffered from PTSD, professional care only in the mid-1980s, estimated some 850,000 veterans suffered PTSD - hostile reception back home, no celebrations, ridiculed

Answer 29

Vietnam: - Vietnam's economy was severely strained. It was primarily agricultural, underdeveloped, and isolated from global markets due to its centralized economic planning and communist rule - South Vietnam's economy had been heavily reliant on foreign aid, particularly from the U.S., which supported military development and infrastructure. After reunification, Vietnam faced significant economic challenges, including poverty and underdevelopment - The destruction of land meant the country could not produce enough food for the population, previously Vietnam had been a major rice exporter. - Many skilled and professional workers left the country for fear of persecution (emigration of 2 million from late 1970-early 90s). - Illegal activity increased (half a million women became prostitutes), the growth of the black market grew as did the drug trade in the south especially. - Private property was confiscated, the population was de-urbanised with some relocated to New Economic Zones located in remote highland areas. - A broad free-market policy was put in place in 1986 and only then did the economy begin to improve, boosted by oil export revenues and and influx of foreign capital. - Long-term economic stability as Broad Free Market policy in 1986 improved the economy boosted by the oil revenues + influx of foreign capital USA: - created public distrust of government due to hige military expenditure ($1 trillion in today’s market) - The OPEC Crisis in 1974 led to an increase in oil prices by about 400%; this meant that the Americans, in addition to the South Vietnamese, suffered badly in terms of their economy. - The Vietnam War, to an extent, played a role in the US’s inflation, however this would mostly be attributed to other factors including spending on the Korean War. - the reason for inflation during the Vietnam War, though, was that President Johnson was unwilling to raise taxes due to the lack of public support, so he inflated prices. - halted military aid to cambodia led to sihanouk seeking another source of help

cold war conflicts Flashcards

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