Collecting and preparing qualitative data

Question 1

What are the qualities of a good research plan?

Answer 1

Needs to be broadly defined and open, incorporating the theoretical framework and ethics, not just the methods for both generating and analysing the data. The chosen data collection and analysis methods should be appropriate for the research question being asked, and the method of collection should generate data appropriate to that method of analysis

Question 2

What are the 3 different routes to guide research design?

Answer 2

1) Organisation by research question type - e.g. if you’re looking for people’s experiences this would be best supported by an interview method of data collection while a question looking at understanding/perceptions might be best supported by a focus group method. The question will also dictate what are the most suitable methods of data analysis and sample size
2) Organisation by method of data collection - e.g. interactive data collection methods such as interviews, ppt-generated textual data such as surveys, or secondary sources. Data collection method will guide how much data might be needed (although this will also be influenced by particular research question, type of analysis chosen, richness of data etc. Remember the research plan is only broadly defined, specifics will be worked out in the process) and also which methods of analysis are/are not suitable
3) Organisation by method of data analysis - e.g. thematic analysis. Methods of analysis will influence the types of questions that can be asked, suitable types of data, how much data might be needed and what sampling approach to use

Question 3

How should sampling strategies be chosen?

Answer 3

In such a way that they yield rich information and are consistent with the methodological approach being used i.e. need to make sure you have a large enough sample to obtain enough data to adequately answer the question you’re asking.

Question 4

What are qualitative research samples generally like?

Answer 4

Smaller than for quantitative research (usually around 15-30 ppts, and any more than 50 would be considered a large sample)

Question 5

What is the amount of data i.e. sample size we need driven by?

Answer 5

What you want to know, what will have credibility, and also what is possible with time and resources (e.g. interviews will be more time consuming than surveys)

Also the concept of saturation i.e. the point at which additional data stops being new information. More ppts will be needed if the topic is broad, if the topic is sensitive/less accessible (because individuals might provide less detailed info), or if the data is “shallow” e.g. data from qualitative surveys. The less info from each ppt, the more ppts you need

EXAMPLE - Study exploring men’s experiences of their bodies (broad) using surveys (shallow) would generally require more ppts than a study into men’s experiences of anorexia (narrow) using in-depth interviews

Question 6

What is an important consideration in sampling?

Answer 6

Inclusion criteria - we want to yield rich information while also being consistent with our research question and methodology

Question 7

What are the 6 possible sampling methods?

Answer 7

1) Purposive - identify characteristics you need, develop a list of potential participants and invite them to participate
2) Snowballing - choose the first participant based on their profile (purposive) and then ask them to identify others
3) Convenience - Find the correct location and choose those most likely to cooperate. These ppts will often be self-selected e.g. responding to an advert, so these are generally far broader samples. A classic example of this is usually uni students
4) Stratification - sampling to ensure that the range and diversity of different groups in a population are represented in the sample (variation might be demographic or phenomenal)
5) Theoretical sampling - Sampling becomes an interative process where data analysis and theory development shapes selection of subsequent ppts to elaborate the developing theory
6) Criterion sampling - in some instances the data set will have a specific criterion e.g. may be sampling for a specific event/issue, and in this scenario you would sample all or some of the data meeting that criterion

Question 8

What is a problem with the concept of saturation as a rationale for sample size?

Answer 8

It invokes a rather experiential/positivist model of qualitative research where data are collected to provide a “complete” and “truthful” picture of the object of study, a theoretical position not all qualitative research subscribes to

Question 9

What is meant by inclusion/exclusion criteria for a sample?

Answer 9

Who DO we want to hear from and who do we not?

Sometimes the aim for sampling is to have a diversity of perspectives (maximum heterogeneity sampling), or the opposite (maximum homogeneity sampling), or something in between.

The most important thing to bear in mind is that we are not sampling different “types” of people with an aim to generalise to the rest of the population. For example, when a demographic variable such as sex or age is used it is because, by virtue of their sex, persons of one or other sex can provide certain information towards an analytic goal. It is not because the researcher wishes to generalise to other persons of the same sex.

Question 10

What are the advantages of sampling “beyond the usual suspects”?

Answer 10

Generate better knowledge and also “give voice” to marginalised groups, “hidden populations” whose group membership may not be visible/may be stigmatised. These hidden populations overlap with hard-to-reach groups e.g. those who fall outside of sampling pools because they live rurally, those for whom participation could be risky, or those who have had negative experiences of research in the past

Question 11

Summarise the 8 key considerations to make at recruitment stage?

Answer 11

1) Decide on a recruitment strategy i.e. who is our sample and how can we find and get them to participate? (should always start sampling very early because there is little way of knowing sometimes whether ppt recruitment will be easy or difficult)
2) Choose what to say when recruiting the ppts
3) Information for ppts
4) Collection of demographic data
5) Special considerations/populations
6) Rethinking recruitment strategy
7) Saturation
8) Incentives/”thank you” payments

The researcher must provide a detailed recruitment protocol that includes a justification for the approach proposed, a flow diagram of the stages of recruitment and a consideration of the measures in place to manage the risks to the participant e.g. whether there is need for a gatekeeper

Question 12

What information should be provided for ppts?

Answer 12

Initially we need eye-catching adverts explaining to ppts why we need their expertise. At the early stage be cautious about revealing too much about the study and its aims. Also provide contact details. All recruitment materials and strategies need to be approved under the ethics protocol

Once recruited ppts should be informed in more detail of the scope and the practical/ethical elements of the project and they should be given a consent form

Question 13

Why do we need demographic data in qualitative research?

Answer 13

Need to be able to reflect on a participant’s context when analysing their data - it is important to reflect on the relationship between results and sample. Other groups might hold different views/have different experiences so we need some way of judging which groups our ppts “belong to”

It is also an ethical consideration - makes sure we’re not just sampling the usual suspects

Question 14

What are the different ways in which demographic data collection can vary?

Answer 14

It depends on the research question whether it is simply a tick sheet on a survey or whether you want the ppts defining themselves in their own words e.g. in a study of gender the latter would be better

Question 15

What is CRITICAL regarding demographic information in qualitative research?

Answer 15

The information must never be used as a variable i.e. it isn’t something the data are analysed or interpreted on the basis of.
It cam be used to show the diversity of a sample or show particular characteristics of each ppt, but it is important only for the purpose of showing the limits of what we can claim and on what basis we can claim it

Question 16

What is meant by a “gatekeeper” in samples of special populations?

Answer 16

Any person or institution that acts as an intermediary between a researcher and potential participants. A gatekeeper may also have the power to grant or deny permission for access to potential research participants.

Use of a gatekeeper will be necessary where a researcher does not have legitimate access to personal data (names and contact details) of potential participants; in such cases a gatekeeper who does have such access will need to make first contact on behalf of the researcher. In other cases it may be good etiquette (though not mandatory) to use a gatekeeper.

Question 17

What are some examples of possible gatekeepers?

Answer 17

Health and social care professionals, such as those working with patients, children or elderly
An employer, for research within a workplace / organisation
Any adult whose permission is required to gain access to research participants within a community (in the UK or overseas), such as another family member (e.g. the parent or husband of the participant), clergy, community leaders or community elders.

Question 18

What is the problem with sampling in psychological research historically?

Answer 18

Sampling of the “usual suspects” dominates, and all too frequently these ppts are used to represent ANY ppt. They are not seen as having specific locations within the culture, which make them a certain TYPE of ppt. Their responses are not analysed as being from educated, white, middle class, straight people, but they do. Including only the usual suspects perpetuates their predominance in psychological knowledge and their views/experiences continue to be over-represented

Question 19

What considerations must researchers make when sampling from hidden populations?

Answer 19

Many of these ppts can also be considered vulnerable and in need of extra care, particularly when researching topics which are sensitive/private/personal. Need to be theoretically and culturally sensitive to ppts’ specificities and undertake ongoing reflexive analysis of your role and interpretations as a researcher.

Recruitment can be harder unless we already have access to a particular group. If not, recruitment can be quite involved/require non-traditional practices e.g. some researchers have spent a year getting to know a particular community before being able to recruit them for research

Question 20

What are some contentious issues with incentives?

Answer 20

Not all researchers will have funding to cover this
Belief that “paying” ppts alters the nature of the research and introduces bias
Whether the incentive should be advertised is another issue - BPS ethically suggests that ppts should never be TEMPTED by an incentive to be exposed to harm they wouldn’t normally be exposed to

However ppts are offering up their time and do deserve to be compensated e.g. for costs of travel, and in this way incentives can boost inclusivity i.e. give people a chance to participate who might not have found it financially viable otherwise

Incentives are generally not necessary if sampling from a ppt pool e.g. students. Wherever recompense is offered it should be small and practical, or something like a prize draw

Question 21

Why can qualitative studies be ethically challenging?

Answer 21

The researcher has to both evaluate what is being observed/reported, AND interpret it
Challenges include anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent, and the potential impact of researchers on ppts (and vice versa)

Question 22

What is the difference between micro- and macro-ethics?

Answer 22

MICRO = focus on ethics at the level of research ppts
MACRO = ethics applied at the level of the society in which the research is being conducted

In an ethical orientation to research, both would be considered

Question 23

What considerations should you make when audio recording an interview?

Answer 23

Test equipment beforehand
Memorise interview guide as much as possible
Ppts must agree to being recorded and must understand why the recording is being made and how it will be used
Offer interviewee copy of transcript after
Keep brief notes during interview to keep track
Make “field notes” after to record ppts’ self-presentation and surroundings, reflect on personal reactions to the ppts, how the interview went, ideas for data analysis etc.

Question 24

What considerations should be planned for prior to an interview?

Answer 24

1) Where is the interview being conducted? Privacy, safety, comfort, safety buddies
2) What will you wear - can affect how ppt perceives and subsequently interacts with you. Different appearances will suit different ppt groups
3) Who are you interviewing and what are their needs?
4) Ways to establish good rapport and make the experience as good as possible for the ppt, even just things like how to align the chairs

Question 25

What does the success of an interview depend on?

Answer 25

Quality of interview questions AND quality of interviewing skills

Question 26

What are some ethical issues associated with interviewing an acquaintance?

Answer 26

Enter into a dual relationship with that person
Shouldn’t use a pre-existing relationship to pressurise participation/disclosure of info
If a friend discloses something new that should remain confidential to the interview unless they raise it again outside the interview
Don’t gloss over information that might be relevant just because it isn’t new to you i.e. don’t make any assumptions. Only the audio recorded info can count as data.

Question 27

What must be considered when interviewing children and vulnerable people?

Answer 27

Social and power dynamic - need to adapt communication style. Requires additional skills and experience, and also has different ethical requirements.

Question 28

How can you manage participant distress?

Answer 28

Acknowledge their distress and allow them to express it, while also containing it within the context of the ongoing interview i.e. don’t let them get completely distracted and off-topic
It may be appropriate to temporarily back off from a topic that is distressing, and return to it tentatively later on

Question 29

What is a transcript?

Answer 29

A written REPRESENTATION of an interview (not simply a copy) - they are an interaction between the recording and the individual transcribing it, and between the interview itself, the recording and the transcribing information will be lost or changed in some way

Question 30

What is meant by orthographic/verbatim transcription?

Answer 30

Focuses on spoken words and other sounds, recording WHAT was said
Need to include hesitations, pace, volume, intonation,, laughing before speech etc. Need to include a notation key to represent these features

Question 31

What are some common errors in transcription?

Answer 31

Sentence structure errors - people don’t always talk in sentences so don’t add punctuation where there isnt’t actually any
Quotation mark errors - failure to capture “reported speech” i.e. where the interviewee is actually saying something someone else originally said
Omission errors - some words and other vocalised sounds may be missed out which may have been crucial
Mistaken word/phrase errors - using an incorrect word/phrase can change meaning of the data

Question 32

Briefly summarise why “interviewing across difference” can present challenges

Answer 32

Some ppts may feel more comfortable disclosing sensitive information to someone who is broadly similar to themselves e.g. female researcher for female ppt, similar backgrounds etc

However matching is virtually impossible in small studies so most of the time a researcher will be not only interviewing someone about something they themselves have no experience of, but they then have to represent this. This requires extra caution and sensitivity.

There can be practical challenges too e.g. words used in the interview may have different connotations for different people

Question 33

How can power be a problem in interviews, and how can it be addressed?

Answer 33

Ppts may perceive researcher as an “expert”, overriding other aspects of identity and experience that may actually be more relevant to them e.g. shared experience of eating disorder.

Challenge interviewer-ppt hierarchy and empower ppts through “empathic interviewing”

The opposite issue would be when the researcher feels vulnerable e.g. a woman interviewing men. There is no easy solution for this power imbalance

Question 34

What makes a quality transcript?

Answer 34

Needs to signal WHAT is being said and WHO is speaking
Records in written form ALL verbal utterances from all speakers
Nothing should be corrected or changed, don’t “clean up” or edit data to put it into proper English - we are interested in how ppts express themselves

Question 35

What are the 4 key ethical principles outlined by the BPS?

Answer 35

Competence, Integrity, Responsibility and respect

Question 36

What is meant by a “safety buddy” and when might this be necessary?

Answer 36

Protecting the safety (physically, psychologically and emotionally) of the researcher themselves is a key ethical consideration when planning research. The “buddy” will have details of the researcher’s movements around data collection but will only access these if there is a problem. The researcher lets the buddy know when they are doing an interview and when they’ll be finished, and checks in when they’re done through a brief call. This in itself will require ethical approval though because it involves someone else knowing ppt details

Question 37

What does “ethical” actually mean?

Answer 37

Something which is widely considered to be morally right in our society