COMPARING AND CONTRASTING TEXTS EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
GAPCR
A
Genre Audience Purpose Context Register
2
Q
GENRE
A
The kind of text you have in front of you e.g. advert
3
Q
AUDIENCE
A
The person or people reading or hearing the text
4
Q
PURPOSE
A
Describes why the text was produced or uttered e.g. to entertain, advise, persuade, inform etc
5
Q
CONTEXT
A
Where, when and how a text is produced or received
6
Q
REGISTER
A
The type or variety of language that the writer or speaker has chosen to use e.g. formal register, medical register etc. Register is a useful term which linguists generally break down into 3 elements: field, mode and manner.
7
Q
FORMALITY
A
Describes the degree to which texts stick to certain conventions and how impersonal they are- the more spoken features a text has the more informal it will tend to be.
8
Q
FIELD
A
Word’s used in a text which relate to the texts subject matter e.g. the field of medicine, the field of golf.
9
Q
MODE
A
Texts can be in:
- spoken mode (e.g. a spontaneous conversation between friends)
- written mode (e.g. an english essay)
- mixed mode (e.g. a political speech)
- multimodal (a text that uses more than one mode; can have a combination of texts and images)
- electronic mode (e.g. a text message or tweet)
10
Q
MANNER
A
Used to express how formal or informal a text is
11
Q
LEXICAL FIELD
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Identifies the main subject matter of a text e.g. food in a recipe or money in an article on economics
12
Q
MIXED MODE
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Features of speech or writing in the same text
13
Q
MULTIMODAL
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A text that uses more than one mode; often used for texts that have a combination of text and images
14
Q
LEXIS
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Words and their origins
15
Q
SEMANTICS
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Meanings of words, both on their own and in relation to other words in the text
16
Q
HIGH FREQUENCY LEXIS
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Words that appear often in everyday speech
17
Q
LOW FREQUENCY LEXIS
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Words that appear more rarely in everyday speech such as specialist terms from a field e.g. medicine
18
Q
SYNONYM
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A word that has a similar meaning to another word e.g. ‘malady’ and ‘illness’
19
Q
ETYMOLOGY
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The history of a word, including the language it came from and when it began to be regularly used
20
Q
FRENCH/LATINATE LEXIS
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Words derived from French or Latin, or both, that are more rarely used; they are often seen as having a higher status or being more specialist
21
Q
POLYSEMIC
A
Describing a word with more than one meaning (e.g. ‘set’ can refer to ‘a set of cutlery’, ‘a tennis set’, what happens to jelly and so on)
22
Q
COLLOCATION
A
Two or more words that are often found together in a group or phrase with a distinct meaning (e.g. ‘over the top’, ‘fish and chips’, ‘back to front’)
23
Q
COMPOUND WORD
A
A word formed from two other words e.g. dustbin
24
Q
DENOTATION
A
The literal, generally accepted, dictionary definition of a word
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CONNOTATION
The associated meanings we have with certain words, depending on the person hearing or reading the word, and on the context in which the word appears e.g. we may associate the colour red with anger
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SEMANTIC FIELD
A pattern of words with similar meanings found across a text or texts e.g. bolt, trap, cage
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LEXICAL FIELD VS SEMANTIC FIELD
These two terms are often used interchangeably. However, there is a distinction. A lexical field identifies the main subject matter of a text whereas a semantic field is a group of words that have similar meanings which may not be the main subject matter of the text
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GRAMMAR
The buildings blocks of sentences (words, phrases, clauses etc) and how they go together to mean something to the reader or listener
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SYNTAX
The order of elements in a clause or sentence (subject, verb, object etc)
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HIERARCHY OF GRAMMAR
- Morpheme- the smallest unit of meaning e.g. bird
Word- made up of one or more morphemes e.g. birds
- Phrase- made up of more than one word (usually) e.g. two birds
- Clause- a complete grammatical unit, that makes sense, made up of words and phrases e.g. 'One turns to the other and he says...'
- Sentence- a complete, grammatical unit which makes sense and can stand on its own e.g. 'One turns to the other and he says, "Can you smell something fishy?"'
- Discourse- longer than a single sentence, will have some kind of structure which relates to the type of text you are looking at e.g. 'Two birds are sitting on a perch. One turns to the other and he says, "Can you smell something fishy?"'
31
NOUNS
Words which name people, places, things, ideas and concepts e.g. frog
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ADJECTIVE
A word that modifies a noun e.g. the orange sky
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VERB
Describes an action or a state e.g. running
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ADVERB
A word that modifies a verb telling you how, where or when an action takes place; they can also modify adjectives, telling you how much e.g. I am really delighted
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DETERMINERS
Words determining the number or status of the noun e.g. a, the, some, most
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PRONOUNS
A word which stands in place of a noun or noun phrase (usually used to avoid repetition of the noun) e.g. I, you, she/he/it, we, they, me, him/her, us, them
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PREPOSITIONS
A word which shows how elements in a sentence or clause relate to each other in time or space e.g. in, on, under, below, with, to, from, by, at
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CONJUNCTIONS
A word that joins clauses together e.g. and, but, or, because, since, if
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PROPER NOUNS
Words for specific people, places or things e.g. Swindon
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CONCRETE NOUNS
Refer to things we touch or can experience physically e.g. snow or butter
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ABSTRACT NOUNS
Refer to ideas and concepts that only exist in the mind e.g. disaster, happiness, seperation
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POSSESSIVE DETERMINER
Determiner which shows who the noun belongs to e.g. my, your, his, her
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ARTICLE
A determiner such as ‘a’ or ‘the’
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DEFINITE ARTICLE
the
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INDEFINITE ARTICLE
‘a’ or ‘an’
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NOUN PHRASE
A group of words with a noun at the centre of it
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COPULAR VERB
A verb that takes a complement e.g. seems, appears, are, was, is etc
- Our insects are important
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COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
The form of an adjective that designates comparison between two things, generally made by adding a suffix -er to its base form e.g. faster
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SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE
Expresses the highest level of the quality represented by the adjective, generally made by adding -est to its base form e.g. fastest
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HEAD NOUN
The main noun at the centre of a noun phrase
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MODIFIER
Any word that describes a noun (can be an adjective, adverb or noun)
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PRE-MODIFIER
Modification that comes before the head noun or phrase/clause
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POST-MODIFIER
Modification that comes after the head noun or phrase/clause
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PRIMARY VERBS
be, have, do
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MAIN VERB
The verb that carries the main meaning or process in a verb phrase e.g. running
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AUXILIARY VERB
Assists the main verb; primary auxiliary verbs do, have and be denote changed of tense e.g. he was running
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IRREGULAR VERBS
Change their form when changing tense e.g. swim/swam
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REGULAR VERBS
Take a regular -ed inflection when changing from present to past tense e.g. walk/walked
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INFLECTION
An ending such as -ed, -s or -ing added to change a tense or number, or in the case of nouns to make a plural
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MODAL AUXILIARY VERB
A sub-category of auxiliary verb that expresses degrees of possibility, probability, necessity or obligation
Can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought, must, will, would
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EPISTEMIC MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs used relating to belief and knowledge e.g. can, could, may, might, ought, would
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DEONTIC MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs used relating to obligation and permission e.g. might, shall, should, must, will, would
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DYNAMIC VERBS
Describe something happening e.g. 'the bee sipped the nectar'
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STATIVE VERBS
Describe something that exists or is e.g. 'she seems quiet'
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ACTIVE VOICE
Clause construction where the subject is also the actor (they are doing or have done something to somebody/something) e.g. the boy kicked the ball
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PASSIVE VOICE
Clause construction where the subject is not the actor (they have had or are having something done to them) e.g. the ball was kicked by the boy
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SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE
This normally performs the action of the sentence or clause and can be a single word or phrase
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OBJECT OF A SENTENCE
This normally receives the action and comes after the verb
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PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
Where the action described by the verb is continous which requires -ing on the end or the verb be as an auxiliary (am, is, was, were)
- Present progressive: a dog is barking
- Past progressive: a dog was barking
70
PERFECT ASPECT
Where the action described by the verb is or has been completed. This requires -ed on the end of the main verb and the verb have, used as an auxiliary
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ADVERBIAL
Part of a clause or sentence which identifies where, when, how- modifiying the verb e.g. the phrase 'on the table' has an adverbial function but no adverb.
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COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These signal the start of a coordinate clause (which is essentially a main clause joined to another main clause) e.g. and, but, or.
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SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These signal the start of a subordinate clause (a clause that depends on the main clause to exist) e.g. because, although, which, who, that, since.
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DIRECT OBJECT
The part of the clause that is directly acted upon by the subject.
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INDIRECT OBJECT
Receives the action.
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DISCOURSE MARKER
Marks a change in direction in an extended piece of written or spoken text (e.g. nevertheless, to sum up).
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COMPLEMENT
A clause element that tells you more about the subject or the object.
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SIMPLE SENTENCE
Has only one clause including a verb e.g. Charlie unearthed some wonderful treasure
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COMPOUND SENTENCE
Has two or more clauses, usually joined to the main clause by the conjunctions 'and' or 'but'.
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COMPLEX SENTENCE
Has two or more clauses, one of which is a subordinate clause (depends on the main clause to exist).
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SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Depends on the main clause to exist
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MAIN CLAUSE
Can stand on its own grammatically
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LEFT-BRANCHING SENTENCE
Has the subordinate clause/s before the main clause
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PERIODIC SENTENCE
A complex sentence in which the main clause is saved until the end e.g. The minister, who was usually late in the mornings, except on those occasions when she had been working all night, was already at her desk.
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NON-FINITE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
A clause in which the verb is not 'finished' and the tense is therefore not shown (e.g. clauses with to- infinitives like 'to buy some cheese' or with an -ing form of the verb such as in 'running down the road').
86
MINOR SENTENCE
A sentence that has some missing elements, such as the subject or the verb, making it technically ungrammatical
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COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
A sentence that has three or more clauses, one of which will be a subordinate clause and one of which will be a coordinate clause.
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COORDINATE CLAUSE
A clause beginning with a coordinating conjunction e.g. and, but, or.
89
WHAT DO SIMPLE SENTENCES DO?
- Are sometimes used to stand out from longer sentences used, for instance at the start or end of paragraphs or sandwiched between longer sentences to break the rhythm
- Appear in children's literature, particularly books for children learning to read
- Make a text 'clunky' if there are many of them, one after another
90
WHAT DO COMPOUND SENTENCES DO?
- Improve fluency in a text compared to lots of short simple sentences
- They are often found in speech as part of a narrative
- They can go on forever
91
WHAT DO COMPLEX SENTENCES DO?
- They are fairly easy to read if the main clause comes first (left-branching)
- They are harder to read if the dependent (subordinate) clause comes first
- They are particularly challenging to read if there are many of them within one sentence, and where the main clause is a long way into the sentence
- Along with simple and compound sentences, they help writers to vary the style, pace and structure of their writing
92
DECLARATIVE
A statement
- gives info
- shows assurance
93
INTERROGATIVE
A question
- need an answer
- keep convos going
- can show power, or lack of it
- can be used to liven up a piece of informative writing
- can be used to make persuasive writing more engaging
- can make commands softer
94
IMPERATIVE
A command
95
TAG QUESTION
An interrogative clause added to the end of a declarative to make it into a question
96
DISCOURSE STRUCTURE
The way a text is structured
97
LABOV'S NARRATIVE CATEGORIES- a way of breaking down the typical discourse structure of a spoken story
- Abstract- begins a story
- Orientation- where and when
- Complicating action- what happened
- Resolution- rounding off the story
- Evaluation- reflecting on the story
- Coda- signing off
98
VALEDICTION
Expression of farewell
99
ADJACENCY PAIR
A pair of utterances in a conversation that go together e.g. greeting and reply, question and answer, statement and statement
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PRAGMATICS
What we really mean by what we write or say
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PRAGMATIC FAILURE
Where the meaning that is implied is not the meaning that is understood by the listener
102
PROSODICS
How we use rhythm, stress and pace in speech to create particular effects
103
INTONATION
The pitch (how high or low you are in your vocal range)
104
STRESS
Where volume is raised to place emphasis on a particular syllable
105
PACE
The speed at which you talk
106
UTTERANCE
A term for vocal expression; it can take the form of one or more words or even a single sound
107
TYPICAL SPOKEN MODE FEATURES
- Incomplete sentences and ellipses
- Slang or informal lexical choices
- Non-fluency features e.g. voiced pauses, false starts
- Hedges
- Deixis- only clear in context
- High frequency lexis
- Direct address
- Elision- words joined together
108
TYPICAL WRITTEN MODE FEATURES
- Complete, grammatical sentences
- Complex grammar and sentence types
- Formal lexical choices
- Sentence demarcation- punctuation
- Few or no hedges
- No deixis
- Formal discourse markers
- Low frequency lexis with latinate/french etymologies
- Third person address
109
FRAMING
Controlling the agenda of a conversation
110
SELF-RELATED COMMENT
Speaker makes a comment about himself/herself
111
OTHER-RELATED COMMENT
Speaker makes comments about another speaker
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NEUTRAL COMMENT
Speaker makes a comment about something neutral e.g. the weather
113
OPENER
Expressions or discourse markers which open a conversation
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CLOSER
Expressions or discourse markers which are designed to close a conversation
115
PHATIC COMMUNICATION
Speech which is really designed to maintain social relationships and does not carry significant meaning often used to start a conversation
116
BACKCHANNELLING
Supportive terms such as 'oh' and 'really'
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AGENDA SETTING
Where a speaker sets up the main topic of conversation
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TOPIC MANAGEMENT
The way topics in a conversation are organized or handed from speaker to speaker
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POLITENESS MARKERS
Words or phrases that express concern for others and serve to minimize threats to face
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FACE
A speaker's self esteem
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Who formulated the idea of face?
Goffman
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POSITIVE FACE
Our need to maintain our self-esteem. Positive is threatened when we are criticized in any way
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NEGATIVE FACE
Our desire to avoid doing something we don't want to do, such as giving money to a stranger
124
Who identified several politeness strategies?
Brown and Levinson
125
What are the four politeness strategies Brown and Levinson identified?
Bald on record
Positive politeness
Negative politeness
Off record
126
BALD ON RECORD
Blunt and direct e.g. 'Get out!'
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POSITIVE POLITENESS
Informal approach of showing interest and agreement e.g. 'Ok, let's call it a day, shall we?'
128
NEGATIVE POLITENESS
Indirect route e.g. 'I guess that it wouldn't be possible that you might be able to get on now'
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OFF RECORD
Where the speaker doesn't threaten the other's face at all e.g. no response
130
LOCUTIONARY ACT
saying something e.g. there's a fly in my soup
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ILLOCUTIONARY ACT
Implying something in what we say e.g. please get me another soup
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PERLOCUTIONARY ACT
what happens in response to what is said e.g. the waiter removes the soup
133
WHO CREATED THE THEORY ABOUT CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS?
H P Grice
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WHAT ARE GRICE'S MAXIMS?
Quantity
Quality
Relation
Manner
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MAXIM OF QUANTITY
Informative
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MAXIM OF QUALITY
Do not say what you believe to be false- tell the truth
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MAXIM OF RELATION
Make what you say relevant to the last speaker's turn
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MAXIM OF MANNER
Avoid being obscure or ambiguous- be orderly
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VIOLATES A MAXIM
Failure of someone to observe a maxim
140
FLOUTING A MAXIM
Where someone obviously doesn't obey the conversational maxims
141
Who created the accommodation theory?
Giles et al
142
ACCOMODATION
where a speaker adapts to another speaker's accent, dialect or sociolect
143
CONVERGENCE
Where a speaker moves towards another speaker's accent, dialect or sociolect
144
UPWARD CONVERGENCE
Changing your accent or lexical choices to something you perceive as more prestigious
145
DOWNWARD CONVERGENCE
Making your accent or lexical choices more informal
146
OVERT PRESTIGE
Refers to a dialect used by a culturally powerful group
147
COVERT PRESTIGE
Describes high social status through use of non-standard forms
148
DIVERGENCE
Where a speaker actively distances themself from another speaker by accentuating their own accent or dialect
149
TURN TAKING
The process of taking turns in a conversation, where only one speaker speaks at a time
150
TRANSITION RELEVANCE PLACE
The point at which one turn is ending and another turn is signaled
151
VOCATIVE
Directly addressing someone via their name
152
DIALECT
A non-standard variety of a language particular to a region
153
IDIOM
A form of common, non-literal expression e.g. 'I was dead on my feet'
154
ACCENT
The distinct pronunciation patterns of a group of people
155
IDIOLECT
Your own individual way of speaking
156
SOCIOLECT
A variety of language that is characteristic of the social background or status of its user
157
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION
a prestige form of English pronunciation
158
DESCRIPTIVISM ATTITUDE
an attitude to language that describes what is there, explaining it, without judgement
159
PRESCRIPTIVISM ATTITUDE
an attitude to language that suggests that some forms of language are more valuable than others- this approach prescribes what is correct and what is not
160
GLOTTAL STOPS
A form of stop consonant made at the back of the throat to replace the 't' sound e.g. 'wha?' instead of 'what?'
161
MAINSTREAM DIALECT
the dialect that spans the whole english nation
