Component 3- criminal behaviour Flashcards

Question

evaluate the amygdala explanation of criminal behaviour- cultural issues

Answer 1

crime is constantly changing by definition and what is considered a crime. This is dependent on the time, place and culture an individual resides in. This is an issue, as a biological explanation cannot explain one act, which is considered a crime in one culture/place/country and not in another. Secondly, the theory is reductionist, ignoring the roles of society and culture. It ignores the education or socioeconomic background of the offender, when assessing them, when these factors may have caused their criminality, not their amygdala. Therefore, an interactionist approach should be undertaken, which all factors including genes, society, education, upbringing and personality as causes for criminality.

Answer 2

crime is constantly changing by definition and what is considered a crime. This is dependent on the time, place and culture an individual resides in. This is an issue, as a biological explanation cannot explain one act, which is considered a crime in one culture/place/country and not in another. Secondly, the theory is reductionist, ignoring the roles of society and culture. It ignores the education or socioeconomic background of the offender, when assessing them, when these factors may have caused their criminality, not their amygdala. Therefore, an interactionist approach should be undertaken, which all factors including genes, society, education, upbringing and personality as causes for criminality.

Answer 3

it's clear that it ignores other factors that may influence criminal behaviour, such as society, culture, socioeconomic background and education. This is a problem, as the explanation is reductionist, stating that only the amygdala plays a role in causing criminality. Another social issue is that the research surrounding this explanation has a gender bias. A lot of it has focussed on cis gendered (CG) men, ignoring other genders or applying the conclusions made from the results found in men to other genders. Other communities have been ignored, such as the Trans community and those who identify as gender fluid or non-binary. Therefore, assumptions should not be made that state that other genders become criminals in the same way as CG men, as no research has been carried out on other communities, nor has there been any attempt to do so. This theory has fallen for a beta bias, as it ignores the other genders and has a focus on CG men.

Answer 4

if an individual who has been charged with a crime is on trial, evidence showing that they have a dysfunction in their amygdala could be used against them. This means that the individual may be wrongfully convicted of a crime, as this evidence may sway a jury into believing they committed the crime. This is ethically wrong, as amygdala dysfunction does not automatically mean someone will commit a crime, many other factors play a role in their behaviour and all these need to be considered. Furthermore, it may be argued that by explaining criminality with biological reasoning, it removes any blame from other factors. To elaborate, society and the government may have contributed to an individual’s behaviour, however this theory soley places the blame on the offender themselves. Many state that crime is mostly caused by social inequality and poverty, and so by not considering the roles that society plays in causing this, the real reasons are left ignored. This is an issue, as crime may never be fully kept under control, if the real reasons are not addressed and the offenders themselves are the only people blamed.

Answer 5

- states that certain characteristics predispose people to criminility - an individual's personality traits can be explained in terms of 3 dimensions (neuroticism/stability, extraversion/introversion and psychoticism/normality) - dimensions have genetic basis and theory states crime is caused by biology and learning experiences. - personality questionnaire- assesses personality in terms of 3 dimensions.

Answer 6

- criminality is determined by arousal - higher extraversion score means indidual seeks more arousal so may commit dangerous activities. - higher neuroticism score means more unstable so may over react to threat, explaining some criminal behaviour. - higher psychoticism linked to crime, due to aggression and lack of empathy. - crime may be as a result of biologically determined personality and socialisation. (born with personality traits but environment further develops criminality.) - operant conditioning means typical people conditioned to associate negative behaviour with punishment, so avoid punishment by not behaving negatively. BUT high scores of neuroticism and extraversion less easily conditioned, so don't learn to avoid antisocial behaviour, like introverts do.

Answer 7

-Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, lively. determined by level of arousal in nervous system. Extraverts seek more stimulation to increase arousal. - Introverts: quiet, unsociable, reserved, pessimistic, anxious. Seek less stimulation as are over aroused. Neuroticism: experience negative emotional states like anger, anxiety, depression. Determined by level of stability, measured by reactivity in sympathetic nervous system (how reactive to threats, activating fight/flight response). Unstable, reacts/gets upset easily Stability: more unreactive nervous system, calm under pressure. Psychoticism/normality: egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, lacking empathy. Related to higher levels of testosterone, so CG men more likely to score higher in this.

Answer 8

argues thinking affects behaviour and criminals may have different thinking patterns, cognitive distortions and different levels of moral reasoning.

Answer 9

- criminals suffer from cognitive distortions (abnormal ways of thinking, which do no reflect reality) - examples: Hostile attribution, minimalisation.

Answer 10

- attempting to make causal explanations for our own behaviour and behaviour of others. - Internal (dispositional) attribution: the behaviour is due to a personality trait - External (situational) attribution: the behaviour is due to factors in environment. - Hostile attribution bias: when someone has a leaning towards always thinking the worst. EG, someone may smile at you but you think the person is thinking about you negatively- negative interpretation leads to more aggressive behaviour. - likely to be linked to increased aggression levels. - Gudjonson (1984): the Blame Attribution Inventory (BAI): EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (criminals more likely to blame their criminal behaviour on external factors such as society or their social circumstances or the victim themselves. MENTAL-ELEMENT ATTRIBUTION (criminals may blame their crimes on mental illness/lack of control. GUILT-FEELING ATTRIBUTION: feelings of regret or remorse for committing their crimes. - Gudjonsson and Singh (1988): different types of offenders are likely to make different attributions about their own behaviour: Sex offenders- more likely to experience guilt-feeling attributions. Violent offenders more likely to demonstrate mental-element attributions. - research by Gudjonsson and Singh found criminals who made external attributions had much higher levels of psychoticism (links to Eysenck's personality theory)

Answer 11

minimalisation and magnification refer to our perception of consequences of situations. - minimilistion means that an individual under-exaggerates the consequences of a situation. - offender may reduce any negative interpretation before/after a crime has been committed, to help person accept the consequences of their won behaviour and reduce negative emotions. Example: A burglar might think when planning crime, stealing a few things from a wealthy family has little impact and because of minimalisation, they don't feel as bad about committing the crime.

Answer 12

- Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning: each stage is a more advanced form of moral understanding. 3 levels, each divided into 2 stages- people progress through stages as consequences of biological maturity. - PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL: stage 1 and 2- children accept rules of authority and judge actions by consequences. - CONVENTIONAL LEVEL: stage 3 and 4- people continue to believe that conformity to social rules is desirable, but not out of self interest. Maintaining current social system ensures positive human relationships and social order. - POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL: stage 5 and 6- people move to the norms of the social system. Person now defines morality in terms of abstract moral principles that apply to all societies and situations. - Hollin et al (2002) found justifications were common at each stage: - Preconventional: breaking the law is justified if punishment can be avoided or if the rewards outweigh the costs. - Conventional: breaking the law is justified if it helps to maintain relationships or society. - Postconventional: breaking the law is justified if it helps to maintain human rights or further social justice. - Hollin found crimes are more likely to be committed by those at a lower age of moral development, so offenders are characteristically less mature with regard to their moral reasoning than non-offenders.

Answer 13

research support (hostile attribution bias)- Schonenberg and Justye (2014) showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 antisocial violent offenders in prison and compared responses to matched control typical participants. offedners more likely to interpret angry pictures as an expression of aggression. Concluded these misinterpretations of non verbal cues like facial expressions may party explain aggressive/impulsive behaviour. - Research support (minimalisation): Kennedy and Grubin (1992) found sex offenders' accounts of their crimes often downplayed their behaviour. the offenders suggested the victim's behaviour contributed to the crime and some denied the crime had been committed. Maruna and Mann (2006) argued this is part of a fairly 'normal' behaviour where all people try to blame events on external sources to protect themselves.

Answer 14

- limitations of Kohlberg's theory: Concerns moral thinking rather than behaviour. Krebs and Denton 2005 argued moral principles are only 1 factor in moral behaviour and may be overridden by practical factors (e.g. financial gains). Found when analysing real life moral decisions, the moral principles were used to justify behaviour after doing it. BUT, research only used male samples (gender bias- social issue). - Ignores biological factors (reductionist). bio and social factors may be more important factors in explaining violent behaviour than distorted thinking. Caspi (2002) found 12% men w/ low MAOA responsible for 44% violent convictions and experienced maltreatment. Means cognitive explanation may not be a complete explanation of criminal behaviour.

Answer 15

- Defining crime. Crime is a social construct and is dependent on the context in which it occurs. Laws change over time, so what is considered criminal today may not be in future. - Research that uses self report methods open to social desirability bias (lie about experiences) - Researching a specific group, i.e. violent/ aggressive offenders, does not provide insight into criminals in general e.g. white collar crime or shoplifters.

Answer 16

- Reductionist. ignores other issues such as society, culture, socioeconomic background and education as causes of crime. These issues are often the main causes of crime. This gives a limited explanation. - Gender bias. Lot of research focussed solely on CG men, ignoring or applying the same theories to other genders. Ignores trans community + gender fluid and non binary. Little attempt made to investigate criminality in these genders and not appropriate to assume reasons for CG male criminality is the same for all genders. This theory falls for a beta bias.

Answer 17

- Reductionist. ignores role of society and culture. All criminals assessed equally, regardless of socioeconomic background or education. The real causes of crime are varied and complicated. Interactionist approach should be taken, seeing genes, society, upbringing and personality all interacting to cause criminality. - definition of crime is a constantly shifting target. What is considered a crime depends upon a person's culture and time period in which they live.

Answer 18

- May not be possible to blame criminals for their actions if they have cognitive distortions, different levels of moral reasoning. May be said criminals cannot control the way they think, so cannot be blamed for their actions. - The blame is placed on the offender. This absolved society and government from any responsibility. Argued the main reason for crime is social inequality and poverty. By placing blame within the criminal, it ignores real reasons for crime.

Answer 19

Incomplete theory as it cannot account for all criminal behaviour. Only provides explanation for violent/aggressive/impulsive behaviour. Non violent crimes such as white collar or shoplifting not covered. Not all criminals have cognitive distortions, thinking patterns or different levels of moral reasoning and non criminals may also have these cognitive issues too.

Answer 20

- Takes into account both nature and nurture. biological theories (genes and amygdala) ignore nurture or at least downplay it. This theory argues biological predispositions towards certain personality traits combined with conditioning and socialisation during childhood create personality. Interactionist approach more valid than bio or environmental theory alone. Links to diathesis stress model of behaviour (a biological predisposition and environmental trigger causes certain criminal behaviour.) - support for link between personality and criminal behaviour. Research by Dunlop et al. (2012) comparing criminal and non criminal personalities, demonstrated extraversion, psychoticism and lie scales were a good predictor of delinquency. All participants students and their friends age 15-75. Delinquency was assemssment of minor offences in last 12 months theft, traffic offences and armed robbery. BUT Dam et al (2007) showed only small group of male offenders in a juvenile detention centre had high score on all 3 of Eysenck's dimensions (variables).

Answer 21

- personality may not be consistent. assumes personality consistent. e.g. that a person who is anxious, is anxious all the time. Many psychologists support a situational perspective suggesting consistency for similar situations, but not all situations, such as someone who is relaxed at home but anxious at work. Mischel and Peake (1982) supported this situational theory. They asked family, friends and strangers to rate 63 students in different situations and found almost no correlation between traits. - Cause and effect is not clear. Personality may lead to criminality or criminality may lead to personality. Theory argues personality determined by biological and environmental factors and personality leads to criminal behaviour. BUT a lot of research comes from criminal participants and little longitudinal research assessing personality type and following participants over time to see if they become criminals. HOWEVER it may be that extraversion and psychoticism found more often in criminals due to lifestyle causing changes to personality. Cochrane (1974) found reviews of prisoners suggest they score highly on psychoticism and neuroticism but not necessarily on extraversion. Research partially supports Eysenck's theory. BUT, being in prison may cause higher rates of neuroticism and psychoticism, rather than being caused by it.

Answer 22

- problems with methodology. all personality theories have the issue that the score/label given to participant depends on their answers in questionnaire. Participant is responding to demands of questionnaire, when answering. For example, when asked to select traits that apply to them, their responses may not reflect reality. People may also give socially desirable answers, that are not truthful. This can be stooped by lie scales in questionnaires, which are a set of questions and if participant says yes/no consistently to lie scale questions, they are probably dishonest in the whole questionnaire, so data discarded. - sample bias. criminals used in research only reflect a specific group of criminals (those who have been caught). Those who have not been caught may have different personalities compared to those who have been. May be argued that criminals who have been arrested may score higher extraversion and psychoticism than those not caught. High extraversion and psychoticism may make individual prone to angry outbursts, impulsivity and reduced ability to plan and assess the outcome of their behaviour. Criminals who do not get caught may score lower on extraversion, so behaviour is more calculated and rational.

Answer 23

- reductionist. states criminals are for instance, neurotic and extraverted BUT does not state why they are criminals (e.g. poverty). explanation limited. - gender bias. much research focussed soley on CG men, either ignoring other genders or applying same theories to all genders. Research also ignores trans community and those who are gender fluid or non binary. Little attempt to investigate criminality in other genders and may not be appropriate to assume other genders become criminals in same way as CG men. Theory falls for a beta bias (ignore/minimise sex/gender differences and assume findings from studies using CG males can apply equally to CG females).

Answer 24

- definition of crime is a constantly shifting target. What is considered criminal depends upon an individual's culture and the time period in which they live.

Answer 25

- self report bias- EPQ is a self report measure, which may lea to inaccurate results. People may respond in ways that they think are socially desirable, or they may not be aware enough of themselves to answer accurately. - Destruction of papers. Eysenck's papers were destroyed months after his death, which may make it impossible to fully explain the findings from his research. - Categorising people. some say attempting to definitively categorize people is useless because people have personality traits from across all of his identified dimensions, which change over time.

Answer 26

- Sutherland (1939) differential association theory - If individual experiences repeated attitudes, positively associated with crime, rather than negatively, then more likely to commit crime. - learned attitudes and imitation of crime leads to criminal behaviour. - Criminal behaviour learned from interactions and experiences with family, peers, media etc.

Answer 27

frequency, length and meaningfulness of interactions. Those that have the greatest influence on criminals are those who: - They see the most often (frequency) - With which they spend the most time (length) - Where the interaction is significant (meaningfulness) parents, family and peer groups have the biggest effect as they meet these criteria. Learning may also occur through operant conditioning and social learning from role models.

Answer 28

1. criminal behaviour is learned rather than inherited 2. Criminal behaviour is learned through association (interaction and communication) with others 3. Association is within intimate personal groups 4. What is learned are techniques, motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes. 5. The learning is directional- either for or against crimes 6. If the number of favourable attitudes outweighs unfavourable ones then a person becomes an offender. 7. The learning experiences (DAs) may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity for each individual. 8. Criminal behaviour is learned through the same processes as any other behaviour. 9. General 'need' (e.g. for money) is not sufficient explanation for crime because not everyone with those needs turn to crime.

Answer 29

- understanding the causes of delinquent behaviour in youth, designing effective interventions for individuals who have been involved in crime and developing strategies to prevent crime by targeting high risk groups.

Answer 30

- Major Contribution: changed society view on origins of criminal behaviour. Theory stopped blaming individual factors and highlighted social factors. Theory suggests crime does not need to be explained by personality, but social experiences. Before this theory, most theories gave biological causes for crime and may be argued to be racist and prejudice. Sutherland suggested that certain minority groups not inherently criminal, but the social circumstances of an individual cause them to commit crime. If DA correct, then interventions can be put in place to prevent the transmission of crime. - Can explain a variety of crime: can explain white collar crimes and organised crime. Can be generalised to most types of crime. Regardless of wealth, education or socioeconomic status all people have a social circle which influences behaviour and views. These social circles can hold procrime or anticrime views. Theoru can explain why criminal behaviour runs in families. Osborn and West (1979) found that 13% of sons with non criminal father had criminal records and 20% of sons of criminal fathers had records.

Answer 31

- Does not take biological factors into account. Raine (1993) reviewed the literature comparing the delinquent behaviour of twins and the average concordance rate was higher for MZ twins (52%) than DZ twins (21%) - Free will: Criminal behaviour is determined by your socialisation and peer groups. This theory could imply that people all follow each other and are moulded by the environment with no free will to make own decisions. This raises the ethical issue of accountability. If criminal behaviour is due to their socialisation, can they be held accountable for their crimes?

Answer 32

- Researching a specific group: Research that focusses on a specific group of criminals, such as murderers, may not provide insight into criminals in general - Using self report methods: open to social desirability bias, where participants lie about their experiences - The data collected are correlational, which does not explain cause and effect. In terms of peer influence it could be that criminals seek out other criminals and this would explain why criminals are likely to have criminal peers. Cox et al (2014) argue this theory is not testable. This issue is about how one measures the effect of number and strength of association on subsequent attitudes. It's not clear what ratio of favourable to unfavourable influences would tip the balance.

Answer 33

- Reductionist. Ignores biological factors such as genetics and brain differences - Gender bias: research focussed on CG men and theories have ither ignored other genders or applied the same theories to them as CG men. Also ignores the trans community and those who identify as non binary or gender fluid. Little attempt to investigate criminality in other genders and may not be appropriate to assume reasons for criminality in CG men is the same in all genders. Theory could be falling for a beta bias.

Answer 34

- Definition of crime is a constantly shifting target: What is considered crime depends upon a person's culture and the time period they live in.

Answer 35

If circumstances in which someone is socialised cause criminal behaviour, it may be argued that it is unethical to blame individual for their criminality. Cannot blame someone for their crimes if they have no free will and it may be said they should not go to prison for this reason.

Answer 36

DA remains an incomplete theory as it cannot account for all crimes. Not all criminals socialise with other criminals.

Answer 37

Gender identity learned through socialisation within a culture. Male and female behaviour is observed, imitated and reinforced much in the same way that Sutherland argues that criminal behaviour is. Sutherland argues that the different patterns of socialisation experienced by boys and girls reinforces behaviour that may encourage criminality in boys, and discourage in it girls. Sex role theory: this theory argues that boys and girls are socialized differently, therefore resulting in boys becoming more delinquent. There are different versions of this theory. Edwin Sutherland (1949) stated that there are clear gender differences when it comes to socialization. Firstly, girls are more supervised and more strictly controlled. Secondly, boys are encouraged to take risks and to be tough and aggressive. Therefore, boys have more of an opportunity and an inclination to commit crime.

Answer 38

The influence of gender socialisation can also be explained using Social Learning Theory. This theory, first proposed by Bandura (1977), argues that all people (but especially children) learn their behaviour by observing and imitating role models. Role models are more likely to be observed and imitated if they share characteristics with the observer, such as being the same age or older, being likable, and being of the same gender. Children therefore will learn their gender behaviour mainly from their parents, with boys imitating their fathers, and girls imitating their mothers. Girls have a readily available female role model at home (their mother) whereas boys have less access to their male role model as traditionally the father was out at work for most of the time. Boys will be socialized largely by their mother and will tend to reject behaviour that is seen as feminine as they compulsively pursue masculinity. Because of the emphasis on toughness and aggression this encourages anti-social behaviour and delinquency. Albert Cohen (1955) believed that if boys don’t have that readily available role model, socialization can be a difficult process. Boys can experience anxiety about their identity as a young man and a solution for this is all male peer groups or street gangs. In these social contexts, aspects of masculinity can be expressed and rewarded. The idea of being tough and breaking rules can help to conform to the idea of masculinity.

Answer 39

There is also the argument that girls are socialised away from criminal behaviour. The feminist perspectives on who is involved in crime starts from the view that society is patriarchal and woman can only be understood under male dominance. Pat Carlen (1990) stated that a woman’s crimes can be known as ‘the crimes of the powerless’ as many woman who commit crimes are powerless in some way. For example, they live in poverty with little power to change the situation; as children they may have been badly treated and looked after, perhaps being abused by fathers. As adults they have often lived under the dominance of male partners who asserted control – perhaps in the form of violence. Also, as well as having fewer opportunities for committing crime as men, when women do commit crime, their rationale tends to be different. After interviews with 39 woman aged 15 to 46 convicted of various offences, Carlen drew on the control theory – saying that woman turn to crime when the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. It appeared that the interviewed women turned to crime as a rational choice. Low paid work and unemployment had not led to the standard of living they hoped for, and living an unhappy life as children and as adults was very unfulfilling. Unrewarded by family and the workplace and with little power to change the situation, crime was a rational alternative. However, critics of Carlen claim that her sample of woman was too small to make generalized statements. Her research also suggests that conformity to social norms tends to break down when the rewards for doing so are absent

Answer 40

The Chivalry thesis/Chivalry hypothesis The chivalry thesis suggests CG women commit more crimes than official statistics suggest. Police, magistrates and judges tend to men - men who have been socialised to act in chivalrous manner towards women. Otto Pollack(1950) suggested that men in the criminal justice system tend to be protective towards CG females and as a result mean women are less likely to be arrested or charged, prosecuted and convicted compared to CG men. This suggests it is not only the gender of the criminal but also the gender of the criminal justice system, which may be responsible for the lower levels females seen in crime statistics. Strength 2-Men are less likely to be punished Though fewer females are prosecuted for criminal behaviour, the Criminal Justice System may be biased against women. Carlen(1997) reported that when women were considered, ‘good mothers', they were less likely to be imprisoned than women who had children in the foster care system, therefore arguing tat it is the assessment of the women’s character in relation to traditional gender roles, rather than the severity of the crime which is on trial. Males may commit more violent offences but, ‘get off,’ comparatively lightly as they are only, ‘overstepping’, the expectations for gender.

Answer 41

Weakness 1-Hormones in males The gender differences in crime can be explained in terms of biology rather than social factors. One way in which CG Males and CG females differ lies within the production and levels of hormones. Testosterone is a hormone that although is found in both CG men and CG women, is shown to be secreted by men at a much higher level. Testosterone has been linked to aggressive behaviour in many studies, including those within prison populations. For example, Dabbs et al (1987) found 9 out of 11 inmates with the lowest testosterone concentrations had committed nonviolent crimes, whereas 10 out of 11 inmates with the highest testosterone concentrations had committed violent crimes. This suggests that testosterone is related to increased aggression and that differences in socialisation and social control may not be the only differences that are responsible for the criminal behaviour of CG males and CG females. Weakness 3-Outdated Another issue with this theory is that it could be argued that it is out of date. Back in 1949 when Sutherland proposed gender socialisation as an explanation, male and female roles were clearly defined. Men went out to work, women stayed at home. Men were strong and dominant, women were weak and subservient. Men were inventive, women were nurturing. This is no longer the case.

Answer 42

Correlational research-Some of the research studies above are correlational, which does not tell us what is cause and what is effect. Researching a specific group-Research that focuses on a specific group of criminals, such as violent offenders, may not provide insight into criminals in general.

Answer 43

Reductionist. It ignores biological factors such as genetics and brain differences Gender Bias. The gender socialization theory is based solely on CG men and CG women, and does not take other genders into account. Research has also ignored the Trans Community as well as those who identify as gender fluid and non-binary. There has been little attempt to investigate criminality in other genders, other than cisgender and it may not be appropriate to assume that the reasons other genders become criminals is the same as those who are cisgender.

Answer 44

Cultural Issues Definition of crime is a constantly shifting target .What is considered to be a crime depends upon a person’s culture, and the time period in which they live. Research conducted in western countries-this research cannot be generalised to other cultures

Answer 45

Ethical Issues Free will-The idea that people have free will and could have acted differently is a basis for blame and retribution. However, if actions are influenced by biological makeup, environment, or randomness, then people may not be fully responsible for their actions

Answer 46

Incomplete theory

Answer 47

- type of CBT - argued that a lot of criminal behaviour stems from anger issues, as anger can cause someone to make poor decisions, lose control of behaviour and inability to judge consequences of actions accurately. Anger can lead to harmful criminal behaviour - Aim of AM is to reduce an emotional response of anger by reconceptualising the emotion using range of cognitive behavioural skills.

Answer 48

- criminals have a tendency towards an irrational way of thinking, such as having a hostile attribution bias. This means criminals tend to think about situations in the most negative light, such as if someone were to smile at the individual, they would believe the person is thinking bad thoughts about them. - These negative interpretations lead to increased anger.

Answer 49

- Criminals may not fully understand the consequences of their anger, and the long term negative effects (injury, imprisonment) that may result from it.

Answer 50

- aims to change the way a person handles anger and aggression (change the way the individual thinks about a situation and thus changing their behaviour, as the situation itself cannot be changed). - Novaco (2011) identified 3 key aims for any AM programme: 1. cognitive restructuring- greater self awareness and control over cognitive dimensions of anger. 2. regulation of arousal- learning to control the physiological state 3. Behavioural strategies- such as problem solving skills, strategic withdrawal and assertiveness.

Answer 51

- Novaco (1975 and 1977) carried out work and created a model which drew on inoculation training (form of CBT). - Stress Inoculation aims to stop angry outbursts and stop future occurences. - therapy tends to be conducted with a group of offenders either inside or outside prison (e.g. during probation) - three key steps: 1. Conceptualisation: initial phase. clients learn about their anger, how it can be useful and non useful. Analyse own patterns of anger and identify situations which cause them to be angry. 2. Skill acquisition (and rehearsal): clients taught AM skills such as regulation, cognitive flexibility and relaxation. Taught communication skills to resolve conflicts without anger 3. Application (and follow through): clients apply the skills initially in controlled, non threatening situations such as role plays of previous situations that made them angry. Receive feedback from therapist. Later clients can try out new skills in real world settings.

Answer 52

- often used in prisons, designed for male offenders - teaches males to monitor and understand emotions to prevent and control anger. - consists of 24 sessions tat teach participants skills to reduce frequency, intensity and duration of anger to lessen likelihood of aggression. CALM programme also addresses management of other strong emotions and concerns such as jealousy, anxiety and depression. - CALM sessions practical, structured, sequential and designed for adolescent and sult males at risk of violent behaviour and criminal recidivism. - Modelling, role play, teamwork and self and peer evaluation are used to teach and promote lasting change of inappropriate and unproductive thought and behaviour patterns - suitable for males with poor literacy skills and limited eductaion due to the level the workbooks are written at.

Answer 53

- Trimble et al. (2015): reported on an AM programme with 105 offenders on probation in northern Ireland. Included those with history of anger and aggressive behaviour and those with poor emotional control that predisposed them to offend - programme reduced anger and amount of anger experienced among offenders compared to pre-treatment scores.

Answer 54

Effectiveness: In general Anger Management programmes are successful in reducing anger, for example, Taylor and Novaco (2006) found a 75% improvement rates based on 6 meta-analyses of research. Cost-effective: Anger Management can be cost-effective because it can lead to quick change.

Answer 55

Time-consuming: Anger Management can be time-consuming compared to other therapies such as drug therapy. Ignores other factors: Anger Management may overemphasize the role of cognitions and ignore other factors (such as a person’s biology or social factors) that might contribute to a person's criminal behaviour

Answer 56

Social desirability bias: Participants may give the answer they think is more socially acceptable, rather than being truthful. Memory biases: Participants may forget or distort past experiences.

Answer 57

Benefits for prison environment. Anger Management Programmes have benefits for prison staff and other prisoners when used in prison environments. They have potential to reduce aggression and violence - if we accept that anger and aggression are linked. Even without a link to aggression and violence, anger on its own creates a hostile atmosphere. The majority of the schemes are designed for CG male offenders, and nearly all the research into its effectiveness is carried out on CG men. On the one hand, we could argue that this just reflects the fact that CGmen are genuinely more aggressive and prone to anger than CG women, Trans Men, Trans women and those who identify as gender fluid and non-binary. The statistics show that the clear majority of violent crime is committed by CGmen. However, this means that there are limited options for those of other genders who offend because of anger issues. It may be that the causes and treatment for other gendered anger is different to that for CGmen’s anger. Traditional CGmale-focused anger management may therefore be an inappropriate treatment choice for others.

Answer 58

These theories and research are based on western countries, so cannot be generalised to other parts of the world.

Answer 59

Therapist conflict. Therapeutic interventions are intended to help client. When these interventions are used in prisons there's conflicts for a therapist as they have a duty to the institution and to their clients. For example, a client might tell their therapist information that could threaten security of the prison or may confess details of the crime committed. Breaching any therapeutic confidence is only acceptable in most serious situations, but it does pose dilemma for therapist and would damage the client's trust in authority. Lack of voluntary consent .In many cases, offenders are required to take part in an anger management program, for example as a condition of probation. This participation is against ethical code of therapists, although the Anger Management and Domestic Violence Professionals ethical code does say, ‘based, when appropriate, on valid informed consent.’ Ethical issues are balanced between costs and benefits, so the cost to valid consent could be weighed up against benefits for the person and society through anger reduction.

Answer 60

- most formal sanctions for crime focus on the offender, but RJ focusses on both victim and offender - usually involves communication between victim and offender. Offender may just give victim payment, or may write them a letter to have a meeting with an impartial facilitator. - may substitute a prison sentence if victim agrees, or will be alongside a prison sentence.

Answer 61

- Rehabilitation of offenders: victims explains impact of crime so offender understands effects on victim. Offenders learn to take other perspectives to increase empathy and reduce reoffending. Offender encouraged to take responsibility for crime to have an impact on future behaviour and attitudes. - Atonement for wrongdoing: may offer money or show feelings of guilt and show understanding of the effects of their actions. Victim can express distress and offender can develop empathy.

Answer 62

- RJ focusses on rehabilitation, where as it's clear that custodial sentences are not effective for this, e.g. for violent offenders who are surrounded by other violent offenders daily, are not going to rehabilitate. - RJ focusses on victim and offender, where as custodial sentences only focus on offender.

Answer 63

- focusses on healing the harm to people and their relationships caused by crime, through justice. theory recognises that the wider community, victim and offender are necessary for RJ. Victim seeks reparation, offender must take responsibility and wider community aim to achieve reconciliation for a healthy society. If only one stakeholder involved or only 2 then RJ does not fully work.

Answer 64

- beneficial for victims. The UK Restorative Justice Council (2015) reports 85% satisfaction for victims of a variety of crimes from theft to violent crime, in face-to-face meetings w/ offenders - reduce reoffending. The UK restorative Justice Council report an overall figure of 37% reoffending.

Answer 65

- not applicable to all victims and all offenders. The offender needs to have admitted to doing the crime, though Howard Zehr (2002) claims RJ can take place without an offender's presence. Victims may decline the offer. May not be useful for some crimes such as rape and domestic abuse, as this would cause mental trauma for victims.

Answer 66

- researching a specific group (criminals) is not generalisable to those criminals who have not been caught - research proves correlation not cause

Answer 67

- Financial implications: reduced reoffending means £8 is saved for every £1 spent on RJ (reduced custodial costs, court costs, police time)

Answer 68

- Western practice, so cannot be generalised to other parts of the world

Answer 69

- psychological harm to victim e.g. if criminal shows no empathy so victim feels harmed again and loses self esteem. If criminal does not appear to take process seriously, victim may feel taken advantage of if RJ offered instead of custodial sentence. - abuse of power. Victims may gang up on offender, especially if the offender is a child. Victims may try to shame offender which is not the intention of the process.

Component 3- criminal behaviour Flashcards

(93 cards)