Conservatism Flashcards
(197 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 fundamental conservative beliefs?
A
- Conserve tradition
- Private property/capitalism
- Social hierarchies: family, church
2
Q
What are the 3 strands of conservative thinkers?
A
- Traditional
- One Nation
- New Right
3
Q
What are the core ideas/principles of conservatism?
A
- Pragmatism
- Human imperfection
- Organic state/society
- Paternalism
- Libertarianism (Neo liberalism)
4
Q
Who are the 5 key conservative thinkers?
A
- Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
- Edmund Burke (1729–1797)
- Michael Oakeshott (1901–1990)
- Ayn Rand (1905–1982)
- Robert Nozick (1938–2002)
5
Q
What are the 4 main factors that every idea/principle could be related back to (SESH)?
A
Conservative views on
- Human nature
- State
- Society
- Economy
SESH
6
Q
What are the different tensions between the different strands of conservatism?
A
- traditional conservative − commitment to hierarchic and paternalistic values
- one-nation conservative − updating of traditional conservatism in response to the emergence of capitalism
- new right − the marriage of neo-liberal and neo-conservative ideas
7
Q
How can conservatism be considered the oldest ideology?
A
People were unthinkingly conservative pre Enlightenment, in the sense of caution and tradition
- only had to be defined after the emergence of ‘liberalism’ and ‘socialism’
8
Q
A
8
Q
What do current conservatives argue they are instead of being ideological?
A
prefer to argue they are practical and pragmatic
9
Q
What happened between 1642-9?
A
English Civil war between parliamentarian ‘roundheads’ and royalist ‘cavalier’ supporters of king Charles I culminates in his execution. This ‘regicide’ was very shocking for many English people who believed the monarch was put on earth by God. Hobbes was one of them.
10
Q
What happened in 1660?
A
Restoration; the Republic ends with Parliament asking Charles I’s son, who had been in exile in France, to return as monarch. Hobbes was pleased.
11
Q
What happened in 1688?
A
Glorious Revolution refers to the removal of Charles II’s successor, his (unpopular Catholic) brother James II. Parliament informed James they no longer wanted him as monarch and he fled abroad. Parliament invited Dutch Protestant William of Orange and his English wife Mary instead.
12
Q
Why was the Glorious revolution so ‘glorious’?
A
It was known as Glorious because a ) hardly any blood was spilt and b) Britain became the first limited monarchy in the world, where the monarch agreed to abide by the constitution and take second place to the sovereign parliament.
13
Q
How would Hobbes have felt about the Glorious Revolution?
A
If Hobbes had not died by now, he probably would have disapproved, because he believed in tradition and monarchical authority.
14
Q
What happened in 1776?
A
Adam Smith the founder of modern economics writes that there is an invisible hand in the market place which means laws of supply and demand will always find a natural equilibrium price. Governments and cartels of businesses should not attempt to manipulate it. Burke follows Smith’s ideas.
15
Q
What happened in 1789?
A
French Revolution; French people adopt a radical version of enlightenment ideas by overthrowing their monarch to establish a democracy.
16
Q
How do the English/Burke feel about the French Revolution?
A
Many English people are supportive at first, thinking it is a French version of the Glorious Revolution. But then thinkers like Burke say the French have gone too far by executing royal family, giving too much power to parliament and being ‘anti-religious’. The excessive bloodshed proves what chaos results from overthrowing tradition.
17
Q
What happened in the 19th Century Industrial Revolution?
A
Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation break down traditional rural economy where landed aristocrats look after the poor. Capitalism in the shape of ‘free markets’ is established, and by 1840s, liberal economic ideas like free trade.
18
Q
What happened in the 1860s?
A
Benjamin Disraeil, an intellectual and innovative Conservative politician, becomes Prime Minister and also writes books, including novels saying there are currently two nations rich and poor, which need to be united into one nation. He is the founder of one nation conservatism, some state help to the poor necessitating some move away from free markets,
19
Q
What happened in the 2nd half of the 20th Century?
A
Thinker Michael Oakeshott updates one nation conservatism.
20
Q
What happened in 1945-79 post war consensus?
A
many argue Oakeshott contributed to Conservative governments maintaining Labour established NHS and welfare state ie a centrist consensus.
21
Q
What happened in 1979?
A
Neoliberal (in her economic ideas) Margaret Thatcher becomes PM and smashes the consensus between centrist conservative and Labour ideas. In her social policies (homophobic, strong law and order) she is neoconservative. President Ronald Reagan 1980-1988 has a similar mix of ‘new right’ ideas. They both make markets freer, cut taxes and welfare for poor.
22
Q
How do Traditional Conservatives feel about Human Nature
A
Hobbes was cynical suggesting human
nature was to act out of self interest, and violence and hatred would prosper without constraint on human conduct, only redeemed by capacity to reason, allowing them to create a state ensuring order and security, therefore efficiency in pursuing self interest with less hazard (humans are selfish)
Burke was more sceptical as our tendency to fall short meant that change should be slow and gradual, allowing for the ability to backtrack and revise if things go wrong. This is why he opposed the idea of a utopian society that came with the French Revolution, as it was too optimistic of human potential. (‘fallible not terrible’, so need support to live ideally)
Burke and Oakeshott felt humans were sociable not individualistic, drawn to security of local communities and the ‘sense of belonging that follows’- Burke referred to them as ‘little platoons’
23
Q
Do Traditional Conservative see Society as natural or unnatural?
A
Hobbes and Burke (Traditional thinkers) dismissed that society is ‘natural’ unlike Liberal or Socialist thinkers, as without law and order to preserve peaceful interactions provided by the state, rights and conventions disappear, therefore viewing ‘natural rights, laws and society’ as dangerous.- This references the English Civil War/French Revolution
24
What do Traditional Conservatives view society to be made up of?
They view society as a mixture of local, voluntary and apolitical 'little platoons', such as local churches, families and clubs, unified to the idea of 'One Nation'. They moderate the individual egotism which prohibits society (Hobbes).
25
How do Traditional Conservatives feel about Tradition?
Importance of tradition:
Scruton comparison to a plant dependent upon its roots and branches, therefore society's course stems from the past.
Burke described a practical partnership between the living, the dead and those who are to be born as a compass for how to govern the present and future
26
How do Traditional Conservatives feel society should be led?
Conservative society would be guided by practical experience, but although adverse to abstract ideas to guide society, Burke or Oakeshott stressed abstract ideas of Original Sin as it had understanding of human nature and therefore a god moral basis for society. Burke hated the atheism of the French Revolution, and the 'age of religion' gave way to the 'age of reason'
27
How do Traditional Conservatives feel about inequality in society?
value inequality as natural, which fueled Burke to see the French Revolution idea to reshape society as disastrous. Believed in Paternalistic Inequality
28
How do Traditional Conservatives value society in relation to Socialism?
Traditional Conservatism appreciates the importance of society like socialism, but further stresses the value of private property with distinct justifications unlike within a Liberal society, who see it as a 'natural right' and vehicle for individualism. It is an example of Burke's partnership between the dead, living and yet to be born, linked to local institutions therefore Burke's 'little platoons', associated with wealth therefore Paternalism, force of stability and anti-revolutionary as it is worth preserving for each individual owner.
29
How did Traditional Conservative Hobbes feel about the Economy?
Pre capitalism still in feudal age ie Mercantilism (Elizabeth 1st, first Mercantilist monarch, building country's wealth based on silver and gold, imperialism, country using its strength to conquer other countries and ruthlessly trade/steal, used by countries with strong navy/army to get richer
- Colonise + use Navy to stop other countries from trading)
- Too long ago to be historically relevant
30
How did Traditional Conservative Burke feel about the Economy?
beginning of capitalism, admires Adam Smith (first economist)-> The invisible hand (of the free market), specialisation/division of labour
Believes in society but accepts people will be more self interested when buying and selling/in markets-> See humans as having two faces, one more selfish and business minded, one more caring and utilitarian
pro paternalist aristocracy tendency
31
How do One Nation conservatives see Human Nature as Flawed?
Conservatives tend to highlight the flaws and imperfection of humans, restraining from optimism that rival ideologies take ie Liberalism and Socialism. See humans as less perfect and more fallible, Conservatism is a 'philosophy of imperfection' (Oakeshott)
32
How do One Nation Conservatives see Human Nature as fixed?
Conservatives see human nature as a constant nature to be imperfect no matter the society or environment, less capable of changing, suggested by traditional Conservative thinkers like Oakeshott who describe this view as 'The philosophy of imperfection'. In contrast, Marx thought human nature could be moulded
33
How were One Nation Conservatives more optimistic about Human Nature compared to Traditional Conservatives?
Oakeshott was much more hopeful believing that humanity is generally 'fallible not terrible', still capable of kindness and solidarity despite failure. Sees humans as creatures of habit, impulse and emotion, with a fondness for social and enjoyment connections, which is why people prefer 'the familiar to the unknown… present laughter to utopian bliss'- felt humans were sociable not individualistic
34
How did One Nation Conservatives feel about society?
People rely on their own communities- Oakeshott felt these units provide a sense of security and purpose and moderates state power through another means of providing support. David Cameron exemplified this as PM in 2010, promising a 'big society and small state'
35
How did One Nation conservatives feel society should be led?
Oakeshott argued society would be guided by practical experience but also believed in the abstract ideas of religion (original sin) as important to society
36
How did One Nation Conservatives feel about inequality in society?
Burke and Oakeshott felt inequality benefitted the majority of society as the wiser upper classes enlighten and protect the weaker
(Paternalism)- seeing society as a family. Neglection would lead to unleashed tensions that could overturn society, like the overthrow of the French Aristocracy
This was also followed by Disraeli as a One Nation PM
37
How do One Nation conservatives feel about society?
nobles should be paternalistic to poor people living on their land, but once industrialisation happened and many lived in towns, the state would also have to help the poor
38
How do One Nation conservative Disraeli practically feel about the Economy?
Urbanisation made paternalism more difficult, factory owners couldn't be trusted to look after workers ie no help in their old age, therefore there would have to be state intervention in the economy
39
What are One Nation Conservative views on the Economy?
One Nation Conservatives thought that it was natural and desirable for the most talented, hardworking, enterprising would rise to the top and become richer-> natural inequality
- Believed in free trade unlike mercantilists, trade is good and free trade encourages trade
40
What is the New Right?
3rd strand of conservatism
- comes at same time (1970s/80s) but consists of two distinct strands-> Neoconservatism and Neoliberalism
41
How do Neoliberals feel about Human Nature?
Humans are not imperfect, they are capable of rational thought and improving themselves by their own efforts. They are naturally selfish and individualistic.
If they do create societies it is of people of they choose who are on their wavelength, not villages.
42
How do Neoliberals feel about Economies?
Economies should be totally free from state intervention, then individuals will prosper
43
Who are the key neoliberal thinkers?
Ayn Rand (1957) and Robert Nozick (1974)
44
What are neoconservative beliefs on the economy?
Free markets
45
What are neoconservative beliefs on humans?
humans are imperfect and require strong law and order and tradition.
46
Who is the Neoconservative thinker (not really key)?
Irving Kristol (1920-2009)
Roger Scruton
47
Who are the 2 Traditional Conservative thinkers?
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
Edmund Burke (1729–1797)
48
When was the English Civil war?
1642-60
49
How did the people feel about society and the monarch before the English Civil War?
everyone was Conservative (liked the monarchy, church etc), accepted the dominant system throughout Europe (absolute monarchy backed by the church)
50
How did the people feel about society and the monarch during the English Civil War?
English believed their monarch was so tyrannical they had a civil war and beheaded the King Charles I
51
How did Hobbes feel about the English Civil War?
- So appalled by the CW that he fled to France, Wrote down what Conservatism was in book called Leviathan (1651) to convince people to go back to absolute monarchy
- Gave them reasons why they should 'conserve' the monarchy and other valuable traditions instead of relying on instinctive loyalty
52
Why did Hobbes like the monarchy so much?
Hobbes wants to advocate for ideal state or form of government- absolute monarchy (to avoid chaos and maintain order)
Monarch consists of people- the state is in some way organic
53
What did the Enlightenment make people question?
Movement that encouraged greater scrutiny of religion, politics, science
18th century, period when ideas spread
Against religion
Causes French Revolution
54
What does the Divine right of Kings mean?
Divine Right of Kings- belief that God places the monarch, therefore they are holy and born to rule
Rules with all the people in mind, looks after them and the land
King is the head of the state- his place in society, believes in a hierarchy
55
What type of society was Hobbes in favour of?
Hobbes in favour of concentrated power, rationally felt Divine Right of Kings should be replaced by 'government by consent' principle
Social contract is a basis of the rational state + led to society
Wanted replacement of the traditional government to guarantee public safety
56
Why did he feel that the people needed a selected leader?
Skeptical of human nature, felt they were egotistical likely to commit cruel and destructive acts, driven by self interest
Natural chaos came from absence of formal authority. Acceptable conduct in society was subjective, so uncertainty and war is inevitable
57
How did Burke feel about 'abstract notions'?
Denounced them- people are incapable of comprehending them (ie ideologies)
Progressive rather than reactionary
Passion for improvement, with respect for tradition and experience
58
How did Burke feel about Revolution?
Support for American Revolution, felt the French revolution was too radical
Wanted change to conserve (felt this was the American Revolution)
59
How did Burke feel about society?
Disliked the idea of concentrated power (Hobbes) instead likes aristocratic societies
Global point of view
Both society and state were complex + based on history and slow change, therefore future change should also be cautious and organic (disliked the French Revolution for discarding history and tradition)
Ruling class was inevitable and desirable in all organic societies, but they had obligation to govern in the interest of all
Felt multitudes of small, divers and autonomous communities were better than centralised structures (federal system)
60
How did Burke feel about human nature?
Mankind tendency to fail than succeed
61
How did Burke feel about change?
Change was necessary to conserve, but should proceed on basis of fact and experience rather than theory and idealism
62
What were Traditional Conservative Key texts?
Hobbes' Leviathan (1651): skeptical of human nature, felt they were egotistical likely to commit cruel and destructive acts, driven by self interest
Burke's 'Reflections on the Revolution': Different conservative thoughts on human imperfection, empiricism, tradition, aristocracy, localism
63
What is a Quote from Leviathan than expresses Hobbes' view on equality?
Leviathan Chapter XIII: all men are equal and prone to be violent if other men stop them fulfilling their desires.
- Limited meaning of equal
64
What are quotes from Leviathan that express Hobbes' views on human nature?
“There is always war of everyone against everyone”.
There is no art or industry and the life of man is “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short”.
“Where there is no common Power, there is no Law: where no Law, no Injustice…no Propriety, no Dominion, no Mine and Thine distinct; but onely that to be every mans that he can get; and for so long, as he can keep it”.
- Thinks people are always out for themselves and to avoid conflict
- Pessimistic about human nature
65
How does Hobbes feel the people can have a society if he is so pessimistic about human nature?
Man does have the potential to come out of a state of nature, partly because of his passions and partly because he will reason it would be better to sign a social contract with an absolute monarch. Then he will live in a proper ‘society’ where laws will make people behave better.
- Agreement with the monarch
66
To what extent does Hobbes feel people act rationally or in self interest?
Felt people could use reason therefore to sign a social contract with an absolute monarch for law and order, but for the most part were stupid and lacked much reasoning, acting only in self interest
67
How long after Hobbes was Burke?
140 years
68
Who was Edmund Burke?
Whig MP 1766-94 (predecessors of the Liberal party) (Whigs vs Tories, he was not Conservative MP)
- Aristocrat
- Still pro religion, monarchy and tradition
69
Which economist did Burke agree with?
- Liked Adam Smith's (the first economist) economic ideas (ideas of the free market)-> Invisible hand, people feel guided to choose certain things, do not need the government to control that but people get selfish when buying and selling things
70
Why did Burke like the American Revolution?
- Supported the claims of American colonists in US war of independence, on the grounds they were 'descendants of the Englishmen devoted to liberty according to English ideas and on English principles'
71
Why did Burke dislike the French Revolution?
OPPOSED French Revolution 1789 because they sought to remake society in the image of abstract ideas, forgetting government is a science of 'practice' not logic-> radicalism ended by dictator Napoleon
72
What principle led Burke's beliefs?
'Change to conserve'
73
Why did Burke want England to change?
- If England never change he was scared it would result in a revolution like the French (some changes allow the majority to stay the same)
74
What quote expresses Burke's views on human nature?
"Mankind is fallible not terrible"
75
Who is the One nation Key thinker + One Nation politician?
One Nation Conservative strand
- Benjamin Disraeli 1804-1881
Most influential Conservative PM of the 19th century
Earl of Beaconsfield
(KEY THINKER) Michael Oakeshott 1901-1990
Brought One Nation Conservatism into the 20th century
76
When did Disraeli enter the House of Commons?
1837
77
How did the Conservatives combat the threat of urban workers conspiring to start a communist revolution at the height of the industrial revolution?
Conservatives dealt with this threat by giving them the vote
78
What novel did Benjamin Disraeli write?
Sybil, 1845
- About the need to unite '2 nations' of the rich and the poor, establishing pro welfare and pro democracy strand known as one nation conservatism
79
What One Nation acts did Disraeli pass?
Artisans Dwelling Act 1875: pull some slums down and rebuild them with better housing
80
How did Disraeli feel about institutions in society (ie monarchy, church)?
Pro monarchy, empire, pro church
- Closed the rich and poor gap through racism, as British people are superior to those in India (colonies)
81
What was Oakeshott's first key text?
Key Text= 'On Being Conservative' (1962)
- Reflects on how Conservatives regarded human imperfection-> 'philosophy of imperfection' doesn't need to be 'philosophy of pessimism'
82
How did Oakeshott feel about Human Nature?
Challenged the negative view on Human Nature associated with Hobbes + Burke ('fallible not terrible'), disagreed with the ability to create a 'perfect' society, but felt pleasure and improvement could occur through everyday life
83
How did Oakeshott's Conservatism compare to Liberalism and Socialism?
- Made Conservatism seem more optimistic than Liberalism and Socialism ideologies, arguing that they led to impatience and frustration due to their views on how society 'should' be
84
How did Oakeshott feel about human imperfection?
Human imperfection means a greater appreciation for the pleasures that already exist in life (ie family and friends)
85
What was Oakeshott's 2nd key text?
The Politics of Faith and Politics of Scepticism' (1996)
- State existed to 'prevent the bad rather than create the good' through routine, apolitical activity
- Government reflects the unboundless, unpredictable nature of life by acting pragmatically and not trying to reach a definitive goal
86
How was Oakeshott pragmatic?
Sought a pragmatic approach through trial and error to achieve wisdom in politics and life
87
How did Oakeshott feel about tradition?
Traditions, cultures and spirituality are still important, even in modern ages
88
How was Oakeshott an empiricist?
learn from our senses and experience rather than reason
- Conservatives distrust reason and theory and prefer things that have been testes
89
What quote from Oakeshott expresses how they prefer living pragmatically rather than ideologically (ie Liberalism and Socialism?
"To be conservative... Is to prefer the familiar to be unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to the mystery, the actual to the possible... present laughter to utopian bliss"
90
What was Oakeshott's nautical metaphor that suggests that everyone should live as empiricists and pragmatically?
- "we all sail a boundless sea, with no appointed destination"
- The job of the government is "keeping the ship afloat at all costs… and not fixating on a port that may not exist"
91
Where did Paternalism start?
Paternalism starts with Burke, aristocrats should be like fathers
Disraeli (1850s/60s) felt Lords should be paternal in local area, but Industrial revolution meant cities had grown with no Paternal Lords- modified paternalism
92
What are the principles of Conservatism (PIPOT)?
PIPOT
Paternalism
Inequality
Pragmatism
Organicism
Tradition
93
Do conservatives believe society is organic or inorganic?
Conservatives feel society cannot be planned but only emerge organically, but still requires discipline and attention, therefore only possible with establishment of law, order and authority. Analogy of a plant that unpredictably grows, rather than a machine controlled by humans
94
When did Capitalism begin?
End of 17th Century. When society to make so much more than food (manufactures), it does it in larger more efficient units (factories), therefore owners have to borrow money (capital). People begin to work for a wage.
95
What was the Conservative attitude to Capitalism?
Conservative attitudes to capitalism were simpler to Marx, tending to see it as natural organic development
Britain was capitalist
96
How did Traditional Conservatives feel about capitalism and support for market forces?
Traditional Conservatives generally support capitalism to provide a level of material prosperity, but understand it can damage society by exploiting inequality, linking to traditional Conservative views on human nature
Agree with Marx that unchecked 'raw' capitalism troubles orthodox conservatives as it is iconoclastic (attacks cherished beliefs or institutions)
97
How did Oakeshott feel about capitalism and support for market forces?
complained rural communities were threatened by the remorseless nature of market forces
98
What moderation did Traditional conservatives want on capitalism?
Traditional Conservatives tend to endorse more regulated form of capitalism- similar to Keynesianism
99
Why did Conservatives agree with Capitalism despite the fact it could be seen as ideological/not empirical?
Capitalism is the organic natural system, other systems are doomed to failure
100
How did Macmillan take a One Nation strategy on capitalism?
balance between free market capitalism and socialist state ownership-> Middle Way, aiming to preserve capitalism with full employment and rising levels of public spending- vital to maintain a 'one Nation' society
101
How can Conservatism be seen to be compatible with Capitalism?
- Based on private property (all Conservatives support)
- Capitalism generates hierarchy and inequality, which is natural and organic
- UK, USA- capitalism is established economic system, consistent with Conservatism's support for tradition
- New Right conservatives see Capitalism as precondition of liberty and self-fulfilment
102
How can Conservatism be seen to be INCOMPATIBLE with Capitalism?
- Capitalism generates inequality and tensions within society, therefore threatens the traditional Conservative goal of 'One Nation'
- Capitalism and market forces are often dynamic and volatile, at odds with the stability and continuity desired by Traditional Conservatives
- Capitalism linked to economic liberalism, therefore advances competitive individualism, often at expense of communities values by Traditional Conservatives
- Modern Capitalism tend towards globalisation and erosion of national identity
103
What quote from Oakeshott expresses his view on the role of the state?
said the role of the state is to 'prevent the bad not create the good'
104
How do Liberals feel about the role of the state?
believe humans make laws naturally and create law and order with democracy (less state role)
105
How do Conservatives feel about the role of the state?
believe the state comes first, humans have to accept the authority of the monarch who then creates the state 'top down' ie strong police and army
106
Why do Conservatives feel the state needs to restrain people more?
Both Traditional and ONC believe humans are imperfect, they believe the state needs to restrain people for them to develop society and economy
107
How did Traditional Conservatives feel about the state?
Leviathan, Hobbes: Absolute Monarch, king was the head, the people were the parts of him ie fingers
Burke: Aristocracy with a constitution, society also 'limits' the state
108
How did Burke and Oakeshott believe the state should be guided?
believe the state should be guided by 'normative' views (based on moral and opinion) rather than doctrine on what society 'should' exist
109
What Oakeshott quote expresses his views on acting on 'normative' views rather than 'doctrine' on how society SHOULD be?
'preference for what is known rather than envisaged'
110
How does Oakeshott's Nautical metaphor represent the role of the state?
- Compares the state to a ship with 'no agreed port of destination', aims to stay afloat, chooses the safest course for steady sailing
111
How do Socialists and Liberals see the state compared to Conservative views on the state?
- Socialists and liberals see the state as a means to and end ie greater equality or liberty
- Conservatives see the state as an end, rescuing 'passengers' from 'fatal waters', providing safety to pursue their own interest
112
What are One Nation Conservative views on 'Abstract theories/notions'?
Oakeshott echoed Burke by echoing importance of experience over abstract theory, change should be slow and calculated with the 'love of the familiar' in mind.
Therefore the state could promote consensus and secure harmony and stability-> One Nation
113
How is Conservatism merely the 'politics of Pragmatism'?
- Burke's attack on the French was also an attack on 'abstract politics', claiming political ideas were a poor substitute for experience
- Burke + Oakeshott both praised an 'empirical' approach to politics ('what is/has been' rather than 'what should be')
- Traditional conservatism prides itself on 'flexibility' supposedly allowed it to remain relevant despite centuries of dramatic change
114
How is Conservatism NOT merely the 'politics of Pragmatism'?
- Oakeshott ensures traditional conservatism drew upon principles linked to key aspects of human nature, 'love for the familiar' and 'fear of the unknown'
- Liberals ie T.H Green, argue traditional conservatism was based on a view of reform that was 'ideological' + the argument that cautious reform is preferable is dogmatic, especially when radical change is required
- Socialists ie Beatrice Webb argued traditional conservatives are driven by political principle, rather than 'pragmatic views', ie radical economical change should be avoided, so those with vested interest in status quo were protected
115
What is 'The New Right'?
Modern strand of Conservatism, (intellectual movement of the 1980s)
2 substrands of New Right
Neoliberalism (Rand and Nozick FREEDOM)
- Neoconservatism (Irving Kristol)
116
What are the main beliefs of Neoconservatives?
○ Social Conservatism (family values, law and order ie stronger police force) to turn back the permissive sixties (liberal attitudes to drugs, divorce, homosexuality) and HAWKISH FOREIGN POLICY might be right
117
How did New Right politicians feel about neoliberalism and neoconservatism?
Many New Right politicians combined the 2- neoliberal in their economic policies but neoconservative in the others
118
What are the Main New Right thinkers?
Ayn Rand (1905–1982)
Robert Nozick (1938–2002)
119
What are Ayn Rands key texts/defining works?
Fountainhead (1943), Atlas Shrugged (1957)
120
What is Ayn Rands background?
- Born in Russia
- Anti communist
Russian American writer
Moved to US in 1926 to become Hollywood screenwriter
Very optimistic about the business world + capitalism
121
What was Ayn Rands' view on how humans should live their lives?
Objectivist- idea that people should be guided by their self interest
Individualist
Atomism- human being prioritise autonomy and space, focus on the individuals in society
122
How did Ayn Rand feel about society?
Didn't think there was such a thing as society, just loose collection of independent individuals
123
How did Ayn Rand's view of individualism reflect in her political views?
Keen in Laissez- faire capitalism (GOVT doesn't intervene, like night watcher)
Negative Liberty- do not infringe on other's rights, 'freedom from interference'
Defended homosexuality and abortion (pro, big deal the extent of her liberalism)
124
What Ayn Rand quote expresses how she feels about state interference?
'The small state is the strong state'
125
How was Rand an 'Ethical Egoist'?
action is morally right if it promotes self interest of the agent
126
How does Rand feel about selfishness?
selfishness is a virtue and altruism is a vice
127
What was Nozick's key work?
'Anarchy, State and Utopia' (1974)
128
How did Robert Nozick feel about the state?
Not true anarchist, more 'minarchist' (small state/govt), main involvement with outsourcing public services to private companies (like a night watchman)
129
How did Nozick feel about Human Nature?
- Optimistic about human nature (differs from Hobbes + Burke)-> Saw people as potentially rational and able to improve (similar to Karl Marx)
130
How did Robert Nozick feel about state intervention?
- Felt people should keep their own money, no taxes to government as the people would spend it better
- BUT felt there would need to be a police force (not entirely optimistic about humans)
131
What were Nozick's views on social issues ie abortion, divorce, homosexuality?
- Pro Abortion + Homosexuality (felt people had freedom, do what they want)
132
What are Neoliberal views on society?
Didn't agree on society as a collection of communities but 'Kaleidoscope of autonomous individuals' (Rand.) Thatcher suggested there was no such thing as society
Atomistic view
133
What are Neoliberal views on Paternalism?
Dislike paternalism, seeing it as patronising the wealthy and creating a 'dependency culture'
Prefer 'Enterprise culture', involving self reliance and determination
Rand 'A surplus of obligation spawns a deficiency of innovation'
134
What system of society do Neoliberals desire?
Believe in inequality but want people to earn not inherit privilege
Must be meritocratic, not aristocratic societies
135
What are Neoliberal views on property?
Rand and Nozick thought it was vital that property rights are enjoyed by the majority of individuals
But saw property ownership in terms of self realisation and self determination than traditionality and continuity
136
How does the New Right feel about the economy?
Sympathetic view for free market economies, dubbed as 'Thatcherism' or 'Reaganomics', linked to privatisation, deregulation and promotion of capitalism
137
How does the New Right justify their views on the economy?
Justify their measures as practical responses to difficult economic circumstances ie recession due to Keynesianism and 'mixed economies' required a new approach
But also defended on wider philosophical grounds ie Nozick sees them as allies of individual freedoms and a brake on state power
138
How does the New Right feel about the state in relation to Oakeshott's nautical metaphor?
Felt views of Oakeshott (ie nautical metaphor) were too passive and accommodating. New Right state is less empirical and pragmatic, more rigid and explicitly ideological
- Ie 'The Lady is not for turning'
139
How did the New Right feel about the state?
- Strengthening the state by shrinking it ie Rand 'The small state is the strong state' as when the state is overloaded with social and economic obligations, less able to focus on essential conservative functions -> maintenance and order of security
Ie Thatcherites felt post-war social democratic consensus 'overloaded' the UK state with loss making nationalised industries and welfare state, weakening the state
- Nozick and others aimed to 'roll back the frontiers of the state' through privatisation and deregulation, allowing the state to refocus on areas like law and order, security and defence.
140
What political failures was the New Right movement in response to?
- Failing economies (extensive state intervention, high taxation and public spending. Evidenced in the UK by rising unemployment and inflation, wasteful state owned industry)
- Failing societies ('dependency cultures' due to 1960's permissive societies, Rand felt people had become over reliant on others and the state, meaning rising levels of public spending and taxation)
- Failing states ( Western states were becoming ungovernable ie 1970s trade union strikes were obstructing both Conservative and Labour governments, USA loss of Vietnam war)
141
What was the New Right solution to the political failures it saw in society?
Distinct from previous Conservative strands as had elements of 'Classical Liberalism'
Hybrid ideology of neo conservatism (reassertion of classical conservative principles) and neo liberalism (update of classical liberal principles)
142
How did Neoconservative views channel previous conservative thinker's on views on society?
- Channeled Hobbes by reasserting importance of order, authority and a strong state
- Channeled Burke by reasserting Christian morality and social Conservatism in response to social liberalism concerns
- Revive Disraeli's sense of national identity
143
What are examples of Neoconservative Raegan and Thatcher approaches?
- Tougher law and order approach (More police powers, stronger sentences)
- Strong national defence approach, less conciliatory approach to nation's potential enemies (ie former Soviet Union)
- Less tolerant approach to immigration due to perceived threat to national identity
- Less tolerant approach to social issues of abortion, homosexuality ('permissive society')
- More committed approach to promotion of marriage and 'traditional' families through taxation, welfare benefits and education
144
Who are 2 key Neoliberal influences?
Friedrich von Hayek- Road to Serfdom (1944)
Adam Smith Institute (UK Think Tank)
145
How do Neoliberals feel about the state?
'Minarchism' of Rand and Nozick
Updating Individualism (John Locke) and 'Negative Liberty' (John Stuart Mill)
- Wanted to set people free from state interference, expand individual freedom, diminish 'dependency culture', advance free market economy
146
What are examples of Neoliberal Raegan and Thatcher approaches?
- Reduction of personal taxation ( ie Nozick 'tax is theft')
- Limiting government spending
Deregulation and privitisation of national industries and services, transferring control and ownership of the economy to the private sector
147
How do some argue that neoliberalism and neoconservatism are contradicting theories that lead to incoherent government?
- Neo liberal 'roll back the frontiers of the state' (promote privitisation) vs Neo Conservative 'roll forward the frontiers of the state' (restriction on trade unions and local authorities)
- Neo Liberal advancement of individual liberty (commit to income tax cuts) vs Neo Conservative restriction in Law and order (Thatcher's extension of 'sus laws') and 'Permissive Society (scared immigration will 'swamp' British Culture)
- Neo liberal keen to limit state spending and taxation vs Neo Conservative keen to increase state spending on law and order (ie police and armed forces, Thatcher upgrading UK's nuclear deterrent + commitment to Falklands defence)
148
How do some argue that neoliberalism and neoconservatism are compatible and compliment one another?
- Strong Neo Conservative state is enhanced by free Neo Liberal economy-> If the state stops intervening economically, can devote more funds to policing, defence and a 'Hobbesian' state (Rand's 'small but strong' state)
- Free Neo Liberal economy served by strong Neo Conservative state-> Disciple of social and moral Conservatism means less people 'go off the rails' (Irving Kristol- 'unmarried teenage mothers' 'casualties' of a 'permissive society'), therefore less in need of state welfare. Those who have genuinely unfortunate social backgrounds will have a strong family and community to support them, reducing reliance on state welfare-> more effectively able to pursue neo liberal economic agenda
149
What were Ronald Reagans values?
Wanted smaller federal governments, tax cuts, deregulation called 'The Big Bang' (Reaganomics)
Against Soviet Union
Pride in American Values- Rags to riches, rugged individualism (COWBOYS)
Helped end Cold War, influential in shaping modern Conservative thought
150
What were Margaret Thatcher's values?
- Free Market Capitalism, privitisation, deregulation, reduced government spending
- Deregulation in both Britain and America- telling the rest of the world coordinated that they were moving in a more Free Market Direction
- Limited the power of trade unions to curb strikes + economic disruption
- Advocated for traditional family values + national pride
Section 28: banned discussion of homosexuality in schools (homophobic)
150
What was Reagan's and Thatcher's relationship like?
Close Political Allies: U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher shared a strong personal and ideological bond during the 1980s.
Shared Values: Both were staunch conservatives who promoted free-market economics, anti-communism, and small government policies.
Cold War Partnership: They coordinated closely on confronting the Soviet Union, supporting NATO, and advocating for Western democratic ideals.
Occasional Disagreements: Differences emerged over issues like the 1983 U.S. invasion of Grenada (a British Commonwealth country), but their mutual respect prevailed.
151
What happened in the Cold War?
USA had more money- arms race, pushed USSR, eventually they gave in: Reagan given credit
152
What was Thatcher's and Raegan's legacy?
Their partnership helped shape the conservative movement and global politics at the end of the Cold War
153
What Burke quote expresses how he believed in pragmatism and preservation of tradition?
"By preserving the method of nature in the conduct of the state, in what we improve we are never wholly new; in what we retain we are never wholly obsolete"
154
What Rand quote expresses her belief that humans should serve themselves?
"We're not born with inexplicable duties to serve God or society. We only have one life, and the good is to live it. Don't try to be your brother's keeper or to force him to be yours. Live independently."
155
What Nozick quote expresses how he believes individuals should have personal liberties?
"Individuals have rights and there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights)"
156
What Hobbes quote expresses how people are violently selfish?
"The condition of man… is a condition of war of everyone against everyone."
157
What Burke quote expresses his belief in the value of traditions and institutions?
"We procure reverence to our civil institutions on the principle which nature teaches us to revere individual men: on account of their age and on account of those from who they are descended."
158
What Nozick quote expresses his belief in the role of the state?
"Our main conclusions about the state are that a minimal state, limited, to the narrow functions of protection against force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on, is justified, but any more extensive state will violate persons' rights not to be forced to do certain things, and is unjustified; and that the minimal state is inspiring as well as right."
159
What Oakeshott quote expresses his belief in not being ideological/using abstract notions but living for a good present through empiricism, living through experience
"To be conservative.. Is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded…"
160
What Rand quote expresses her belief that people should think of themselves?
"To say 'I love you' one must first know how to say the 'I'."
161
What Hobbes quote expresses his view that people are self interested as they feel their strengths are better/more accessible than others?
"For such is the nature of man, that howsoever they may acknowledge many others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned; Yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves: For they see their own wit at hand, and other men's' at a distance."
162
What Hobbes quote expresses his view on human nature?
"nasty, brutish and short"
163
What Oakeshott quote expresses his view on human nature?
"fallible not terrible"
164
What Burke quote expresses his views on property?
"a partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born"
165
What Oakeshott quote expresses his views on the state?
the role of the state was to "prevent the bad rather than create the good"
166
What Rand quotes expresses her views on the state?
"the small state is the strong state"
"Rolling back the frontiers of the state."
167
What Nozick quote expresses his view on state intervention?
"tax, for the most part, is theft"
168
What Hobbes quote expresses his views on the role of the state?
"The principle reason for the state is the creation of order and security"
169
What is a recent example of a Conservative politician saying society does exist?
29 March 2020: Boris Johnson announced there is a thing as society after 20,000 former NHS workers returned to assist with the COVID-19 pandemic
170
What is the Conservative belief of an Organic Society?
- Conservatives view society as organic and complex
- Cannot be designed or reshaped by human reason
- Needs cautious, respectful maintenance rather than wholescale reorganisation
171
What are 2 analogies for an Organic Society?
1. Natural characteristics of society compared to family. Individuals are born into families + nurtured by them, instinctive not rational choice
2. Complexity of society compared to a human body. Health relies on all parts of the body ie brain, heart, muscles etc, working in harmony. Sum of parts is stronger than any individual piece, any damage to single part damages the collective
172
How does Organic society differ from a more state engineered society?
Organic society leads to natural variety, rather than government imposed uniformity
- Burke, 'to love the little platoon we belong to in society, is the first principle of public affections'
- Referring to family unit, numerous strands of local community, local church existing in symbiotic harmony
173
Why is Hierarchy accepted by Conservatives?
Society is organic therefore foolish to question hierarchy that has always existed
174
What Hobbes quote expresses the Conservative belief in the natural ruling class?
'some men by nature are made worthy to command'
175
What Burke quote expresses the belief that some men are naturally worthy of commanding?
'true natural aristocracy is not separate interest in the state. It is an essential'
176
What Burke quote expresses the belief that a natural hierarchy was helpful to the ruling class?
helped them 'to possess the virtues of diligence, order, constancy and regularity' needed to maintain a healthy society
177
How do Neoliberals feel about Hierarchy/state?
they are wary of hierarchy and obligations, accepts there needs to be state to enforce the rule of law
178
What do Conservatives believe about responsibility in society in a hierarchy?
stress hierarchy places responsibility on the fortunate to nurture society
179
What concept did Disraeli build One Nation Conservatism on?
on the conception of 'the obligations of the nobility' (noblesse oblige)
- The fortunate had to prevent the creation of 2 nations who view each other as 'dwellers in different zones, or inhabitants of different planets'
- To maintain the unity of society, he expected those towards the top of hierarchy to fund the government's social reforms
180
How did One Nation Conservatives change to understand the role of the state in the Post War years?
One-nation conservatives embraced the need for positive freedom underpinning the welfare state
181
What do Neoliberals think about the concept of 'Noblesse Oblige'?
- Thatcher ('there is no such thing as society') but happiness depends on 'how much each of us is prepared to take responsibility for ourselves and… help by our own efforts those who are unfortunate'
- USA, Republicans with neoliberal leanings wish to reduce breadth of welfare, but still accept existence of state funded welfare state
182
How do Conservatives feel about tradition?
guiding principle for how to maintain society
- Institutions that produce a healthy society must be preserved for future generations
- Tradition's central role in society is also derived from conservative suspicion of human reason-> democracy of the dead, prevents mistakes (Burke)
183
How do Conservatives feel about property?
One of society's most valuable traditions
Since 1923, Conservatives have advocated for 'property owning democracy'
- Gives people stake in society, value security and be more respectful of others
- Several Conservative attempts to create a property owning society-> Macmillan's 1950s house building + Thatcher's 1980s 'Right to Buy'
- Represents a gift from previous generations to help create a healthy society, Conservative desire to strive to pass it on
184
What are core Neoliberal beliefs?
- Believe an organic society reinforced by the state subverts freedom
- Atomist society, individuals free to live as they please as long as it doesn't interfere with others' individual rights (harm principle) + not bound by rules, regulation and taxes unlike organic soc
185
What is an Atomistic society?
- Argue for miniaturist government-> minimal state interference
- Primary function of state is to protect human rights + state involvement 'limited to the narrow functions of force, theft, enforcement of contracts and so on' (Robert Nozick)
- State should be a small 'nightwatchman' to enforce the rule of law
186
What is the Neoliberal view on society?
- Neoliberal view of society= loose collection of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals
187
What is the difference between an Atomistic society and an Organic society?
- Gives individuals much more freedom than in organic soc
- Do not pay taxes or follow laws that limit individual autonomy
- Nozick-> 'taxation of earnings from labour is on a par with forced labour'
188
Why do Neoliberals dislike Organic societies?
- Organic society restricts individual development + forced them to absorb dominant views of society.
- Individuals should be free to decide how to live their lives, as long as their actions do not harm others
Nozick advocated the legislation of recreational drugs + prostitution, offend religious morality (conservative traditions) and conception of the organic society
189
Why do Neoliberals reject the idea of Noblesse oblige?
- Argue organic society is too altruistic, should not be duty dictated by the state but rational action of individual pursuing their own values
- Organic society demand individual sacrifice of personal values and freedoms for greater goods-> Rand argues atomistic society allowed individuals to embrace the 'virtue of selfishness', free to pursue personal aspirations, rather that state determined ones
190
Why do Neoliberals reject the idea of welfare spending in an Organic society?
- Organic state insistence on welfare spending is damaging for individuals, makes many people dependent on the state, arresting their development
- Nozick saw welfare spending funded by taxation as infringing negative freedom- state has no right to 'enrich some persons at the expense of others'-> favours volantarism, individual choice not state obligation ie to give to charity
191
How do Neoliberals view Empiricism/traditions?
Neoliberals see little worth in traditions of organic society or empiricism (whereas Burke felt it should underpin social change)
192
What do Neoliberals value instead of Tradition/Empiricism?
- Nozick and Rand favor rationalism, individuals embrace reason and scientific fact to inform decisions-> (Rand) Objectivism, arguing truth is not found in collective beliefs or religion but scientific fact, therefore traditions of traditional, one nation and neo conservatives are nonsense
193
Why do Neoliberals dislike traditional collective beliefs?
- Traditions and collective beliefs can hinder individual development. The state can manipulate organic society so individuals believe the wrong things/not facts unquestioningly, leads to authoritarian rule and infringement into the individual
194
What is the argument that Conservatism ISN'T an ideology?
- Traditional Conservatives: Humans are imperfect, therefore are only capable of limited reasoning, therefore mistrust abstract theory and ideology
- Unreliable and too complex for humans to understand fully. Traditional Conservatism is empirical, acting on concrete observation and past events only
- Pragmatic rather than ideological-> Seliger argues its a coherent package of theoretical principles and doctrines, taken from past experience (Conservatism is more a way of living)
195
What is the argument that Conservatism IS an ideology?
- Identifiable doctrines and principles do exist, ie organic theory, mistrust of human reason, belief in natural hierarchy, resistance to change
- Pragmatism is still a followed principle, leads to limits of Tory flexibility ie never accept abolition of church, monarch or HOL
- One Nation motivated by desire to prevent social upheaval + paternalism, principled belief of natural governors, organic hierarchy that they promote through a system they are resistant to change (therefore an Seliger ideology)
