Content Flashcards
(181 cards)
1
Q
What has been reported about deforestation in the Amazon since 2014?
A
Deforestation may have passed a tipping point, permanently changing hydrological and climatic cycles.
2
Q
What is a positive feedback loop in the context of deforestation and rainfall?
A
A sequence of events that amplifies or increases change, reducing the rainforest’s ability to regenerate.
3
Q
What are the consequences of thinning forests on soil and weather patterns?
A
Reduced soil water storage and evapotranspiration lead to lower precipitation and changing weather patterns.
4
Q
What is a drought?
A
A water deficit in a particular place over a period of time compared to average rainfall.
5
Q
How long does a drought last in the UK?
A
15 consecutive days with less than 0.2 mm rainfall.
6
Q
What are the three types of drought?
A
- Meteorological: degree of dryness compared to normal precipitation
- Agricultural: insufficient water for crops
- Hydrological: shortfalls in drainage basins
7
Q
What could be a potential impact of drought on the Amazon rainforest?
A
The rainforest’s capacity to absorb carbon will decline.
8
Q
What is a potential consequence of climate change and deforestation on weather?
A
Extreme weather will become more frequent.
9
Q
What is the definition of a tipping point?
A
When a system changes from one state to another.
10
Q
What is resilience in the context of ecosystems?
A
The ability of a system to ‘bounce back’ and survive.
11
Q
What could happen to the Amazon rainforest due to prolonged drought?
A
It may be replaced with savannah-like grasslands.
12
Q
What are the social impacts of drought mentioned?
A
Threats to Brazil’s dependency on hydroelectric power (HEP) and loss of a major carbon sink.
13
Q
What does increased frequency and intensity of fires lead to in relation to climate?
A
Higher levels of carbon in the atmosphere.
14
Q
Fill in the blank: A cyclical sequence of events that dampens or neutralizes the effects of a system is called _______.
A
[Negative feedback]
15
Q
What are the economic impacts of drought related to the Amazon rainforest?
A
Reduced capacity for hydroelectric power generation, affecting electricity supply.
16
Q
What is the role of tropical forests in climate regulation?
A
They regulate regional climate and generate flows of moisture across the continent.
17
Q
What might happen to streamflow and wildlife habitat during a hydrological drought?
A
Reduced streamflow and inflow to reservoirs, lakes, and ponds.
18
Q
What human activities contribute to climate change as mentioned?
A
- CO2 emissions
- Logging
- Increased atmospheric temperature
19
Q
What is the impact of logging on rainforest ecosystems?
A
It contributes to climate change and reduces moisture convergence.
20
Q
What does increased evaporation and transpiration indicate?
A
It contributes to the drying of vegetation and increased drought frequency.
21
Q
True or False: Deforestation has no impact on regional climate.
A
False.
22
Q
What is the term for the varying causes of flooding?
A
Causality
23
Q
How are weather systems linked to the causes of flooding?
A
Systems
24
Q
What does resilience refer to in the context of flooding?
A
The ability of places to respond to floods and their impacts
25
Which region in the UK is familiar with heavy rain due to orographic rainfall?
Northwest of the UK, particularly Cumbria
26
What is the average annual rainfall in Seathwaite, Cumbria?
Over 2 metres
27
In which years did Cumbria experience significant flooding events?
2005, 2009, and 2015
28
What event in December 2015 caused record-breaking rainfall in Cumbria?
Storm Desmond
29
What type of weather system caused Storm Desmond?
A deep Atlantic low-pressure system (depression)
30
What mechanism was responsible for the prolonged heavy rainfall during Storm Desmond?
A 'warm conveyor'
31
How much rain did Honister Pass record on December 5, 2015?
341.4 mm in 24 hours
32
What was the total rainfall recorded at Thirlmere during Storm Desmond?
405 mm in 38 hours
33
How many homes were flooded during Storm Desmond?
5200 homes
34
What infrastructure was disrupted for several days due to Storm Desmond?
Major roads and rail services
35
What happened to the West Coast Mainline due to Storm Desmond?
A landslide closed a section of the line between Preston and Carlisle
36
How many homes lost power when an electrical substation was flooded during Storm Desmond?
61,000 homes
37
True or False: Storm Desmond brought minimal rainfall to Cumbria.
False
38
Fill in the blank: The combination of warm wet westerly winds and uplands such as the Cumbrian fells creates _______.
orographic rainfall
39
What weather phenomenon tracked towards the UK from the Caribbean, causing flooding?
A 'conveyor' of warm and very moist air
## Footnote
This phenomenon led to record amounts of rain in Cumbria.
40
What type of rainfall was created by the Cumbrian fells?
Orographic (relief) rainfall
## Footnote
This type of rainfall occurs when moist air is lifted over mountains.
41
How long did the moist air mass stay over Cumbria?
Up to 48 hours
## Footnote
This duration contributed to heavy rainfall.
42
What was the condition of the ground prior to the flooding caused by Storm Desmond?
Already saturated
## Footnote
This saturation was due to heavy rainfall in November 2015.
43
What accelerated the flooding process in Cumbria?
The steep Cumbrian slopes
## Footnote
Steep slopes lead to faster runoff of water.
44
What effect did impermeable surfaces have during the flooding?
Surface water flowed rapidly into the river channels
## Footnote
Blocked sewers and drains contributed to this issue.
45
Where was the flooding particularly significant during Storm Desmond?
At river confluences at Cockermouth and Carlisle
## Footnote
These areas experienced major flooding impacts.
46
What river caused severe flooding in Carlisle during Storm Desmond?
River Eden
## Footnote
This river was notably affected by the flooding.
47
What was notable about November 2015 in relation to rainfall?
It was the second wettest November since 1910
## Footnote
Only November 2009 had more rain.
48
What meteorological feature determines the direction and speed of depressions?
Jet stream
## Footnote
Its position can influence weather patterns significantly.
49
What type of floods occur following intense torrential storms?
Flash floods
## Footnote
These floods result from rainfall exceeding the river's capacity.
50
When does monsoon rainfall typically occur in South and Southeast Asia?
Between May and September
## Footnote
This seasonal pattern is critical for regional weather.
51
What caused flooding in the Philippines in July 2016?
Heavy monsoon rains
## Footnote
A larger-than-normal low-pressure system contributed to the rainfall.
52
What can cause flooding due to snowmelt?
Rapid thawing of snow and ice
## Footnote
This can occur after mild and wet weather.
53
What event caused flooding in Norfolk in the winter of 2013?
Melting snow and ice
## Footnote
The combination of heavy rain and thawing snow led to flooding.
54
What is one negative impact of farmers' actions on the landscape according to George Monbiot?
Overgrazing by sheep leads to bare slopes replacing forests
## Footnote
Monbiot refers to the Cumbrian landscape as 'sheep-wrecked uplands'.
55
What were the functions of trees in the landscape before the changes in land use?
Absorbed and slowly released water, slowed flow through meandering channels, held water back in bogs
## Footnote
These functions contributed to flood mitigation.
56
What changes have occurred in the landscape due to changing land use?
Bare and drier soils, straightened and dredged channels, faster runoff, reduced stream lag times, higher discharge peaks
## Footnote
These changes exacerbate flood risks.
57
What is the effect of urban expansion on floodplains?
Increased impermeable surfaces
## Footnote
This leads to quicker rainwater reaching floodplains.
58
What combination of measures was used to manage surplus water in Cumbria before 2005?
Raised riverbanks, pumping stations, diversion channels
## Footnote
These hard-engineering schemes were reinforced after the 2005 floods.
59
What is the flood-return period?
A statistical estimate of how often a flood of a certain magnitude is likely to occur
## Footnote
Based on past flood levels, e.g., a 1-in-50-year or a 1-in-100-year flood.
60
What was the height of the flood defences built in Keswick?
4.4 metre-high reinforced glass panels
## Footnote
These were designed to allow the river to rise to 5 metres.
61
What happened to the River Greta in 2015 in relation to the flood defences?
The river rose to 5.9 metres and overtopped the new defences
## Footnote
The defences were designed for a 1-in-100-year event.
62
What is the Environment Agency's stance on hard-engineering flood solutions?
They believe hard-engineering schemes are not the solution and often can't cope with extreme flooding
## Footnote
These schemes are also very expensive.
63
What are some soft-engineering solutions proposed by the Environment Agency?
Reafforestation of upland areas, restoration of river channels, restoration of floodplains, refusal of planning permission near rivers
## Footnote
These measures aim to mitigate flood risks more effectively.
64
What were the years of significant flooding mentioned in the document?
2005, 2009, 2015
65
What economic disruption occurred due to the 2015 Cumbrian floods?
The United Biscuits factory closed for weeks and reopened with a smaller workforce
66
What was the economic cost of flooding in Cumbria in 2005?
£100 million
67
What was the economic cost of flooding in Cumbria in 2009?
£270 million
68
What was the estimated economic cost of flooding in Cumbria in 2015?
£400-500 million
69
How much did insurance claims due to flooding across the UK exceed in 2015?
£6 billion
70
How many homes were flooded in 2005?
3000 homes
71
How many homes were flooded in 2015?
over 5200 homes
72
What are some social costs experienced by residents due to flooding?
* Temporary accommodation for displaced residents
* Closure of local services like schools and healthcare
* Psychological trauma and stress
73
What environmental cost is associated with flooding?
* Erosion of river banks
* Contamination of rivers with sewage and pollutants
* Loss of habitats and ecosystems
74
What impact did flooding have on local tourism?
The risk of repeated flooding deterred tourists from visiting
75
What happened to house prices in flood-risk areas?
House prices fell
76
Fill in the blank: The saturated ground from flooding led to the decomposition of dead plants and animals, giving off noxious gases such as _______.
hydrogen sulphide
77
What challenges are communities facing due to increased flooding in the UK?
Re-evaluating longer-term plans and flood threats
78
True or False: The 2015 floods in Cumbria were anticipated due to previous flooding events.
False
79
What infrastructure was damaged as a result of flooding?
* Bridges
* Roads
* Sewers
80
What agricultural losses were reported due to flooding?
* Loss of hedgerows
* Destruction of dry-stone walls
* Drowning of sheep
81
What psychological effects did residents experience from flooding?
Anxiety, stress, and psychological trauma
82
What was a consequence of river banks being eroded?
Increased future flood risks
83
What type of gases were released due to the decomposition of organic matter in saturated ground?
Noxious gases
84
Fill in the blank: Many businesses ______ due to flooding.
closed
85
What was the increase in global population during the twentieth century?
Four times
86
By how much did water consumption increase during the twentieth century?
Six times
87
What contributed to the gap between population growth and water consumption?
Improved living standards resulting from economic development
88
How much is the world's population growing annually?
About 80 million per year
89
What is the predicted global population by 2050?
9.1 billion
90
How fast is the demand for water rising compared to population growth?
Twice as fast
91
What percentage of the world's population now lives in urban areas?
More than half
92
What is the projected urban population in Africa and Asia by 2030?
It is predicted to double
93
What has led to sharp increases in water use in developing and emerging economies?
Rising incomes and living standards of the growing middle class
94
What is the largest user of water globally?
Agriculture
95
What percentage of water does agriculture consume?
70%, and occasionally 90% in some developing countries
96
By how much will global agriculture need to produce more food by 2050?
60% more food
97
What are some consequences of inefficient water use for crop production?
* Depleting aquifers and reducing river flow
* Degrading wildlife habitats
* Increasing pesticide and fertilizer pollution
* Causing waterlogging and increased salinity
98
What is the predicted increase in global water demand for manufacturing from 2000 to 2050?
400%
99
What is a consequence of poor regulation of water use?
Increased pollution
100
What can lead to contaminated groundwater?
Industrial spillage and poor waste management
101
What phenomenon occurs when salt water is drawn into aquifers?
Salt water intrusion
102
What is a significant issue affecting 20% of the world's irrigated land?
Salinity
103
Fill in the blank: The wells supplying public water in Puerto Rico were contaminated with _______.
toxic compounds
104
True or False: Urban populations are projected to decrease by 2050.
False
105
What percentage of the world's population lives in areas with physical water scarcity?
Almost 20% (about 1.2 billion people)
106
What two environmental factors can lead to physical water scarcity?
* Low rainfall
* High temperatures
107
How will climate change affect water availability in the future?
* Changes in rainfall patterns
* Increased evaporation and transpiration rates
108
What human activities impact the physical availability of water resources?
* Land use changes
* Soil degradation
* Withdrawals for agriculture and industry
* Water contamination
109
What is economic water scarcity?
A situation where people cannot afford processed water
110
In which regions is economic water scarcity predominantly found?
* Africa
* Southeast Asia
* South America
* Central America
111
What is the cost of obtaining water in low-income countries compared to typical incomes?
The cost can significantly impact the incomes of low-income workers
112
What happened in Cochabamba, Bolivia in 1999 regarding water privatisation?
Agua del Tunari raised water prices to 20% of the average income of urban poor, leading to protests and a contract cancellation
113
Why does the price of water vary across different countries?
Due to factors like urban growth outpacing infrastructure and IMF restrictions on government spending
114
How do water charges in Canada compare to those in Germany?
Charges in Canada are 80% less than in Germany
115
When did Ireland begin charging for water, and how did the bills compare to those in the UK in 2016?
Ireland began charging in 2012; bills were 75% less than in the UK in 2016
116
Which country has the world's most expensive water, and what is the government's aim with high pricing?
Denmark; to cut water consumption by passing on all costs to the consumer
117
What does the Pacific Institute state about water management?
Water is too important to human health and the environment to be entirely in private hands
118
By 2015, what trend was observed in major cities regarding water supply management?
Many cities were taking back control of their water supplies
119
What is the primary reason for the increasing global demand for water?
Nearly all forms of energy generation need water as part of the production process.
120
What percentage of global electricity generation is accounted for by thermal power generation?
80%
121
What percentage of global electricity generation is accounted for by hydropower?
15%
122
What proportion of water consumption in the UK is linked to energy generation?
75%
123
By 2050, food production will require _______ more water.
140%
124
What is the target for food production increase by 2050 globally?
60%
125
What is the target for food production increase by 2050 in developing countries?
Double
126
What did the Millennium Development Goals aim to achieve by 2015?
Halve the number of people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation.
127
By 2016, how many people still lacked access to improved water supplies?
Almost 800 million
128
There is a strong link between _______ and a lack of safe water.
Poverty
129
What is the World Health Organisation's claim regarding spending on sanitation?
'Every dollar spent on improving sanitation generates an average economic benefit of US$7.'
130
What is a significant consequence of a lack of investment in basic water infrastructure?
Children die every day.
131
Improving safe water supplies helps to ease time pressures on which group?
Girls
132
Why do girls often miss school during menstruation?
There is nowhere for them to clean themselves.
133
Water is essential for food preparation, especially when it is eaten _______.
Uncooked
134
What grows as the risks of physical water shortages increase?
Potential for conflict
135
How many rivers cross or form political boundaries around the world?
263
136
What percentage of all countries share water basins with at least one neighbor?
90%
137
What has affected the flow of many major rivers?
Construction of dams, reservoirs, and diversion schemes.
138
In Nigeria, how many children die each year from water-borne diseases?
335,000
139
What does Adana Haruna's story illustrate about the impact of water-related diseases?
It plunges families into debt due to medical bills.
140
What are some benefits of improved water quality?
* Lower medical costs
* Fewer days off work
* Improvements in sanitation
* Improved personal and food hygiene
141
What is the percentage reduction in diarrhoea due to improved sanitation?
26%
142
What is the percentage reduction in deaths from diarrhoea due to improved sanitation?
65%
143
What is the percentage reduction in schistosomiasis due to improved sanitation?
77%
144
What are some outcomes of improved sanitation in schools for girls?
* Improved school attendance
* Improved education
* Improved career opportunities
* Improved health
* Reduced poverty
145
What is a potential source of conflicts between users within a country and internationally?
Local and trans-boundary water sources
## Footnote
Conflicts can arise over the use and management of shared water resources, impacting both national and international relations.
146
What is integrated drainage basin management?
Management for large rivers such as the Nile or Colorado
## Footnote
It involves coordinated management practices to optimize the use and conservation of water resources in large river basins.
147
Name one international framework related to water sharing.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
## Footnote
Other frameworks include the Water Convention, Helsinki, and the Water Framework Directive.
148
What is a key reason for the limited success of water sharing treaties?
Lack of international rules for solving disputes
## Footnote
Upstream countries often prioritize their sovereignty over water use, while downstream countries emphasize their right to water quality and quantity.
149
Provide an example of a transboundary conflict within a country.
Conflicts between upper and lower basin users in the Colorado
## Footnote
Such conflicts arise due to differing interests in water usage along the river.
150
What countries are involved in the transboundary conflicts over the Mekong River?
China and Vietnam
## Footnote
These countries have conflicting interests regarding water usage and management of the Mekong River.
151
What is the Mekong River Commission (MRC)?
An agreement signed by downstream users such as Cambodia and Thailand
## Footnote
The MRC aims to reduce conflicts over water resources, particularly concerning Lake Tonle Sap.
152
True or False: The MRC has successfully reduced conflicts among all countries involved in the Mekong River.
False
## Footnote
Upstream countries like Burma and China have not signed the treaty and have constructed dams, affecting downstream users.
153
Fill in the blank: Upstream countries often claim _______ over water resources.
[territorial sovereignty]
## Footnote
This claim leads to conflicts with downstream countries that assert their right to consistent water quality and availability.
154
Fill in the blank: Downstream countries claim _______ regarding water resources.
[territorial integrity]
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes their historical rights to water resources and quality.
155
What impact do dams constructed by upstream countries have on downstream users?
They create dependency on the goodwill of upstream countries
## Footnote
This dependency can lead to increased tension and potential conflicts over water access.
156
What is a key reason why water sharing treaties have had little success?
Asymmetrical power relationships between the users
## Footnote
This imbalance can prevent equitable sharing and resolution of conflicts.
157
What treaty did the International Boundary and Water Commission manage?
The 1944 United States-Mexico Treaty for Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande
## Footnote
This treaty aimed to guarantee annual water flows to Mexico.
158
What infrastructure was built as a result of the 1944 treaty?
A desalinisation plant that treated water from the Wellton-Mohawk river
## Footnote
The treated water was returned to the Colorado River.
159
What issue remains unresolved despite the desalinisation plant?
Ground water extraction on the Mexican side of the border
## Footnote
US farmers over extract this resource, leading to low aquifer levels.
160
Since what year have negotiations been ongoing regarding groundwater extraction issues?
1973
## Footnote
The negotiations have yet to resolve the extraction issues.
161
What condition is necessary for water treaties to be successful?
Little geopolitical tension
## Footnote
High tensions can complicate and exacerbate conflicts over water use.
162
True or False: Water conflicts are less likely to be resolved in areas with poor international relations.
True
## Footnote
Poor relations make water conflicts part of larger geopolitical tensions.
163
What is a key factor for the success of some water treaties?
They are based on the Helsinki Rules which consider natural factors, social and economic needs, and downstream impacts.
## Footnote
The Helsinki Rules provide guidelines for equitable and reasonable utilization of shared water resources.
164
Name two successful water treaties mentioned.
* Indus Water Treaty (1960)
* Ganges Treaty (1996)
## Footnote
These treaties illustrate successful frameworks for managing transboundary water resources.
165
What role does the EU Water Framework Directive play in water management?
It encourages the development of River Basin Plans that outline how ecological, quantitative, chemical status, and protected area objectives will be achieved.
## Footnote
The directive emphasizes the involvement of all interested parties in the planning process.
166
What is the main goal of the UNECE Framework?
To protect and ensure the quality, quantity, and sustainable use of transboundary water resources by facilitating cooperation.
## Footnote
This framework aims to reduce conflicts over water resources among signatory countries.
167
True or False: Authoritarian governments can ensure successful water treaties by overruling objections.
True
## Footnote
An example is the South North Water transfer in China.
168
What is the focus of the Hydropower framework developed from a conference in Berlin?
To improve technical approaches for good practice in hydropower use.
## Footnote
This framework targets river basins that have dams and reservoirs.
169
Fill in the blank: The success of some water treaties is linked to their basis on the _______.
[Helsinki Rules]
170
What does the River Basin Plan include?
* Ecological status
* Quantitative status
* Chemical status
* Protected area objectives
## Footnote
These objectives must be addressed within a required timescale.
171
How can the Drin Basin serve as an example in water management?
It demonstrates how cooperation under frameworks like UNECE can reduce water conflicts.
## Footnote
The Drin Basin is often cited as a successful case of transboundary water resource management.
172
What is a key factor behind treaty success regarding participation?
All basin countries must be involved, not just powerful downstream users.
## Footnote
Ensures that all stakeholders have a voice in the negotiations.
173
What should agreements be built on to ensure scientific validity?
Hydrological data and environmental sustainability.
## Footnote
This foundation helps in making informed decisions that consider ecological impacts.
174
Which entities can ensure fair negotiations in treaty discussions?
International bodies (e.g., African Union, UN).
## Footnote
Their involvement can provide neutrality and facilitate equitable discussions.
175
What aspect of agreements allows them to adapt to changing conditions?
Flexibility.
## Footnote
This enables treaties to remain relevant amidst climate variability and demographic changes.
176
What is essential for ensuring compliance with treaty agreements?
Enforceability.
## Footnote
Clear monitoring and consequences for non-compliance are necessary to uphold treaty terms.
177
What is a failure factor that makes treaties unsuccessful?
Colonial Legacies
## Footnote
Treaties based on outdated colonial priorities (e.g., 1929) often lack legitimacy.
178
What geopolitical issue contributes to the failure of treaties?
Geopolitical Tensions
## Footnote
Mistrust, historical rivalries, and military threats erode cooperation.
179
How does power asymmetry affect treaty negotiations?
Asymmetric Power
## Footnote
Larger/more powerful nations dominate weaker ones in negotiations.
180
What issue arises from the lack of shared information in treaty contexts?
Lack of Data Transparency
## Footnote
Absence of shared data hinders trust and effective management.
181
How does climate variability impact treaties?
Climate Variability
## Footnote
Changes in rainfall and river flow may undermine fixed water allocations.
