Content Area 3-4 Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
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Learning
A
Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors
2
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Associative Learning
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A theory that states that ideas reinforce each other and can be linked to one another
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Consequences
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Association between a response and a consequence is learned
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Acquisition
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Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
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Ivan Pavlov
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Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning
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John Watson
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John Broadus Watson was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism
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Behaviorism
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Studies behavior without reference to mental processes
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Classical Conditioning
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Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
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Neutral Stimulus (NS)
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A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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A learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus (CS)
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
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An unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
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High-Order Conditioning
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A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
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Extinction
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Diminishing of a conditioned response
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
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Generalization
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Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
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Discrimination
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Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli
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Law of Effect
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Principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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B.F. Skinner
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An American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher
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Operant Chamber
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A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing
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Reinforcement
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Any event that strengthens a preceding response
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Shaping
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Reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Positive Reinforcement
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Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
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Negative Reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
| Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
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Primary
Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli
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Conditioned (Secondary)
Gains power through association with primary reinforcer
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Immediate
Occurs immediately after a behavior
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Delayed
Involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward
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Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
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Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforces the desired response every time it occurs
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Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Reinforces a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
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Ratio
Fixed - Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior
Variable - After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors
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Interval
Fixed - Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time
Variable - Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time
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Punishment
Administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior
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Positive Punishment
Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
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Negative Punishment
Removing a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
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Classical Conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone
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Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence
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Observational Learning
Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others
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Albert Bandura
A Canadian-American psychologist. Known for social learning theory and the Bobo doll experiment
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Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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The Bobo Doll Experiment
Bandura studied children's behavior after they watched a human adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll
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Mirror Neurons
Include frontal lobe neurons, which some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person doing so.
May enable imitation and empathy
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Prosocial Effects
Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees.
Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others.
In a study conducted across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior.
Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong internalized conscience as preschoolers
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Antisocial Effects
Abusive parents may have aggressive children.
Watching TV and videos may teach children some unwanted lessons:
Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.
Free and easy sex has few later consequences.
Men should be tough; women should be gentle
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Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
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Recall
Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
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Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
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Relearning
Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time
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Information-Processing Model
Compares human memory to computer operations
| Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
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Connectionism Information-Processing Model
Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing
| Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
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The Three Stages of the Atkinson-Shiffron Model
1. We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory
2. We process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal
3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
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Working Memory
o stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage
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Automatic Processing
To address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness
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Explicit Memories
Declarative memories of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing
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Implicit Memories
Nondeclarative memories that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track
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Sensory Memory
First stage in forming explicit memories
| Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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Iconic Memory
Picture-image memory
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Echoic Memory
Sound memory
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Short-term Memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten
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Chunking
Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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Hierarchies
Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
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Spacing Effect
Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time
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Massed Practice
Produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence
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Distributed Practice
Produces better long-term recall
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Testing Effect
Retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced effect
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Shallow Processing
Encodes information on a very basic level (a word’s letters) or a more intermediate level (a word’s sound)
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Deep Processing
Encodes information semantically based on word meaning
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Memory Consolidation
Neural storage of long-term memories
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Semantic Memory
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
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Episodic Memory
Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
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Infantile Amnesia
Conscious memory of the first three years of life is blank.
| Command of language and a well-developed hippocampus are needed to form memories
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Flashbulb Memories
A highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard
Occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal
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Long-term Potentiation (LPT)
Increase in a synapse’s firing potential
After LTP, the brain will not erase memories
Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
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Kandel & Schwartz (1982)
Pinpointed changes in sea slugs’ neural connections
| With learning, more serotonin is released and cell efficiency increases—that is, the number of synapses increases.
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Retrieval Cues
Priming
Context-dependent memory
State-dependent memory
Serial position effect
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Memory Retrieval
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations.
Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web.
The best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded
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Priming
Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Context-dependent Memory
Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same
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Encoding Specificity Principle
Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
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State-dependent Memory
The tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)
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Mood-congruent Memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
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Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
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Why We Forget
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Encoding failure
Storage decay
Retrieval failure
Interference
Motivated forgetting
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Interference
Proactive - Older memories make it more difficult to remember new information
Retroactive - New learning disrupts memory for older information
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Motivated Forgetting
Freud: Repressed memories protect a person’s self-concept and minimize anxiety.
Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional
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Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Misinformation effect: A memory is corrupted by misleading information.
Imagination effect: Repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
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Source Amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine
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Deja Vu
The sense that “I’ve experienced this before”
| Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
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Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people
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Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
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Category
Category boundaries begin to blur as movement from prototypes occurs
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Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem
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Heuristic
A simpler strategy that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error prone
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Insight
A strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem
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Confirmation Bias
Predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses
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Fixation
Fixation, such as mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution
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Intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
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Representativeness Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; it may lead us to ignore other relevant information
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Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
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Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
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Belief Perserverence
Occurs when we cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that proves these beliefs are wrong
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Framing
Sways decisions and judgments by influencing the way an issue is posed. It can also influence beneficial decisions
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Divergent Thinking
Expands the number of possible problem solutions
| Creative thinking that diverges in different directions
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Convergent Thinking
Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
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Creativity
The use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work
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Motivation
Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
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Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective)
(evolutionary perspective): Genetically predisposed behaviors
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Drive-reduction Theory
Responses to inner pushes
| Suggests physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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Arousal Theory
Right levels of stimulation
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Priority of some needs over others
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Charles Darwin
An English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution
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Instinct
Fixed, unlearned pattern throughout species
| Genes predispose some species-typical behavior
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Homeostasis
The tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; it involves the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry
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Incentive
Involves a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
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Abraham Harold Maslow
An American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization
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Glucose
The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues
Triggers the feeling of hunger when low
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Hypothalamus & Brain Structures
Arcuate nucleus: Pumps out appetite-suppressing hormones
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Ghrelin
Secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain
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Orexin
Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
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Insulin
Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
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Leptin
Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
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PYY
Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain
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Set Point
The point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight
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Basal Metabolic Rate
The body’s resting rate of energy output
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Testosterone
Most important male sex hormone
Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
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Estrogen
Estradiol is secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributes to female sex characteristics.
In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
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Excitement
The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge
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Plateau
Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase
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Orgasm
Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates
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Resolution
The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood
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Sexual Dysfunctions
Impair sexual arousal or functioning
Often involve sexual motivation, especially sexual energy and arousal
Males: Include erectile disorder and premature ejaculation
Females: Include female orgasmic disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder
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Erectile Disorder
Inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis
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Premature Ejaculation
Sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes
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Female Orgasmic Disorder
Feeling distressed due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm
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Paraphilias
Experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, or nonconsenting persons
People with paraphilias (mostly men) do experience sexual desire, but they direct it in unusual ways (Baur et al., 2016)
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Sexual Desire Disorders
Counts as disordered only if:
The person experiences distress from unusual sexual interest.
The interest entails harm or risk of harm to others.
Necrophilia, exhibitionism, pedophilia
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Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI)
Also called sexually transmitted disease (STD)
| Spread primarily from person-to-person sexual contact
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Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Is a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection
Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Depletes the immune system and leaves the person vulnerable to other infections
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External Stimuli
Men are more aroused when erotic material aligns with their personal sexual interest.
Content and intensity of sexual experience arouse women.
Pornography may decrease sexual satisfaction with own partner; may change perceptions about rape and other sexual violence
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Imagined Stimuli
Sexual desire and arousal can be imagined.
90% of spinal-injured men reported feeling sexual desire.
95% of people report having sexual fantasies.
Males: Tend to be more frequent, more physical, and less romantic
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Teen Pregnancy Influences
Minimal communication about birth control
Guilt related to sexual activity
Alcohol use
Mass-media norms of unprotected promiscuity
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Teens Who Delay Sex
High intelligence
Religious engagement
Father presence
Participation in service learning program
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Sexual Orientation
Members of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation)
The other sex (heterosexual orientation)
Both sexes (bisexual orientation)
In all cultures, heterosexuality has prevailed and bisexuality and homosexuality have endured
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Gay-Straight Brain
One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men.
Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as straight women’s hypothalamus does to the smell of sex-related hormones
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Genetic Influences
Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins.
Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated.
Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family
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Benefits of Belonging
Social bonds and cooperation enhanced early ancestors’ survivability.
Combat was more successful.
Reproduction was strengthened.
Foes were avoided
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Affiliation Need
The need to build relationships and to feel a part of a group
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Ostracism
Exclusion from a society or group
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Achievement Motivation
A desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard
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Grit
In psychology, it involves passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
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Stress
The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
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Catastrophe
Unpleasant, large-scale event
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Significant Life Changes
Personal events; life transitions
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Daily Hassles
Day-to-day challenges
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Stress Response
Cannon viewed the stress response as a “fight-or-flight” system.
Selye proposed a general three-phase (alarm–resistance–exhaustion) general adaptation syndrome (GAS).
Facing stress, women may have a tend-and-befriend response; men may withdraw socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive
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Psychoneuroimmunology
Studies mind–body interactions
Emotions (psycho)
Affect your brain (neuro), Which controls the stress hormones that influence the disease-fighting immune system.
This field is the study of (ology) those interactions.
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Search & Destory (Immune System)
B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes
Macrophages
Natural killer (NK) cells
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Type A & Type B
Type A - Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B - Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people
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Stress, Pessimism, & Depression
Pessimists are more likely than optimists to develop heart disease.
Depression increases the risk of death, especially from cardiovascular disease
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Stress & Inflamation
Chronic stress triggers persistent inflammation, which increases the risks of heart disease and depression
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Self-Control
Ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
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Pessimists
Expect things to go badly, blame others
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Optimists
Expect to have control, work well under stress, and enjoy good health
Run in families; genetic marker/oxytocin
Danner and colleagues: Optimism–long life correlation study
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Aerobic Exercise
Sustained activity increases heart and lung fitness; reduces stress, depression, and anxiety
Can weaken the influence of genetic risk for obesity
Increases the quality and “quantity” of life (~2 years)
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Relaxation
More than 60 studies found that relaxation procedures can provide relief from headaches, high blood pressure, anxiety, and insomnia
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Relaxation Training
Has been used to help Type A heart attack survivors reduce their risk of future heart attacks
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Mindfulness Meditation
A reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner
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Faith Factor
Religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active
