Content - learning theories

Question 1

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 1

Takes place when we come to associate two stimuli with one another

Question 2

What happens before conditioning in classical conditioning?

Answer 2

Unconditioned stimuli triggers a reflex response such as salivation, anxiety or sexual arousal. This is called the unconditioned response.

Question 3

What happens during conditioning in classical conditioning?

Answer 3

The unconditioned stimuli and neutral stimuli are paired. Pairing takes place many times for conditioning to occur

Question 4

What happens after conditioning in classical conditioning?

Answer 4

After pairing, the neutral stimuli produces the same response at the unconditioned stimuli. The neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response

Question 5

What is extinction?

Answer 5

When a conditioned stimuli is experienced without the unconditioned stimuli over a period of time the conditioned response is extinguished

Question 6

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 6

Where you unlearn a conditioned response

Question 7

What is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 7

When we become conditioned to respond to one stimulus but we find ourselves exhibiting the same result to other similar stimuli

Question 8

Evaluation of classical conditioning

Answer 8

-Strength is supported by studies conducted on humans and animals. e.g. Pavlov demonstrates classical conditioning of salivation responses in his studies of dogs. This is important because it means there is firm evidence supporting the existence of classical conditioning.
-Weakness is it can only explain how a limited range of behaviours can be acquired. It only explains reflex responses so is only a partial explanation for learning of behaviour
-Strength is used in therapeutic applications such as systematic desensitisation and flooding. This shows classical conditioning is useful to psychologists as well as being of theoretical interest

Question 9

What was the aim of Pavlov’s study?

Answer 9

To explain the role of conditioned reflexes in eating behaviour of dogs and explores how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli unrelated to food

Question 10

What was the procedure of Pavlov’s study?

Answer 10

Took place in a lab so production of saliva could be easily observed
Took place in a soundproof chamber to avoid any extraneous variables

Question 11

What were the findings of Pavlov’s study?

Answer 11

-Neutral stimuli didn’t initially cause salivation response, whereas the unconditioned stimuli caused immediate salivation
-After pairings of neutral stimuli and unconditioned stimuli,salivation occurred through the neutral stimuli
-No salivation was recorded in response to the neutral stimuli in backwards pairing
-Extinction of salivation could be seen as salivary volume declined after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimuli without the unconditioned stimuli

Question 12

What was the conclusion of Pavlov’s study?

Answer 12

A link can be made in the brain between an unconditioned stimuli and a neutral stimuli that occurs just before the unconditioned stimuli. This is called signalisation

Question 13

Evaluation of Pavlov’s study

Answer 13

-Strength is design of the study had clever features that reduced impact of extraneous variables and enhanced internal validity e.g. took place in a soundproof chamber to avoid external sounds distracting the dogs. These controls made it more likely that salivation in response to conditioned stimuli was due to conditioning rather than extraneous variables
-A weakness is its conducted on dogs so it isn’t generalisable. This is important because Pavlov believed his findings would generalise to humans and that isn’t entirely true. However, studies like little Albert show classical conditioning does take place in humans.
-Pavlov’s study has clinical applications in helping understand eating behaviours. Anita Jansen suggests overweight children have acquired very strong associations between cues that predict the arrival of food and salivation response, which causes overeating. This application of Pavlov’s research demonstrates its significance in developing therapies

Question 14

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 14

Results in a link forming between a behaviour and event. Behaviour is an act of individual procedures and the consequence is the event

Question 15

What is the skinner box?

Answer 15

Contained a supply of food pellets that could be released as reinforcers when the animal learned to do something
Using reinforcements and punishments allowed the animals to act in target behaviours

Question 16

What is positive and negative reinforcement?

Answer 16

Positive - takes place when something pleasant is introduced following a behaviour
Negative - takes place when something unpleasant is removed following a behaviour

Question 17

What are examples of primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 17

Primary - food, drink and shelter
Secondary - money, job and title

Question 18

What is positive and negative punishment?

Answer 18

Positive punishment - takes place when something unpleasant is introduced following a behaviour
Negative punishment - takes place when something nice is removed

Question 19

Evaluation of operant conditioning?

Answer 19

-Strength is supported by studies conducted by humans and animals e.g. Skinners box. There are consistent findings regarding the ability to modify behaviour using reinforcement and punishment
-Weakness is it can only explain how existing behaviours are strengthened or weakened, not where behaviours originate. This shows operant conditioning is only a partial explanation for learning of behaviour
-Has many practical applications e.g. in childcare / education. For example giving a child a star for good work encourages them to repeat their good work. This shows operant conditioning is of use in the real world as well as being of theoretical interest

Question 20

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 20

Leads to rapid change in behaviour but the effects tend not to last

Question 21

What is partial reinforcement?

Answer 21

Reinforcement is irregular where we can vary either the ratio of behaviour to reinforcement or the interval between reinforcements. Partial schedules are written as F or V

Question 22

What are fixed and variable partial schedules?

Answer 22

-Fixed schedule is where reinforcer is given after a specified number of behaviours. The time is kept constant between intervals
-Variable schedule is given after an unpredictable number of behaviours. Time varies around mean length of time

Question 23

What is behaviour modification?

Answer 23

Where reinforcement is systematically used to increase the number of instances of desired behaviour e.g. Ford et al assessed head impact using helmet sensors and used individual monitoring to provide reinforcement to high-risk players. Mean impact intensity dropped by 3.9% thus behaviour modification improved safety

Question 24

What is shaping?

Answer 24

Used to encourage complex behaviours. This is done by reinforcing successive approximations of the behaviour. In other words you start by reinforcing behaviour vaguely like what you are seeking, but only continue the reinforcement each time the behaviour becomes a step closer to the target behaviour

Question 25

Evaluation of operant conditioning with reinforcement

Answer 25

-Strength of reinforcement schedules is they are supported by many studies conducted by humans and animals e.g. Latham and Dorsett (1978) found mountain beaver trappers responded better to variable ratio pay than fixed ratio pay -A weakness is the properties of reinforcement doesn't provide a complete account of human motivation. Our behaviour is a result of intristic motivation not just extrinsic motivations. This shows that reinforcement properties only provide a partial explanation for human behaviour -Behaviour modifications have been used to treat a range of mental health problems e.g. Lovaas therapy involves intensive reinforcement in order to normalise some aspects of behaviour in children with ASD. This shows behaviour modification is of practical benefit to clients.

Question 26

What is modelling in SLT?

Answer 26

Modelling takes place when one individual displays a particular social behaviour in the presence of another. Models are people that can be of the same age or sex of the observer and are likeable and attractive

Question 27

What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?

Answer 27

When an observer witnesses the model being rewarded for their behaviour

Question 28

What are the stages of social learning?

Answer 28

Attention to behaviour of model Retention of observed behaviour Reproduction of behaviour Motivation to repeat behaviour due to vicarious reinforcement

Question 29

Evaluation of social learning theory

Answer 29

-Strength is supported by a number of studies conducted on humans and animals. Bandura's studies showed children would imitate an aggressive model who demonstrated aggression on a Bobo doll if rewarded for doing so. Nicol and Pope showed chickens would selectively imitate high-status same-sex models in pecking a pad for food. This supports Bandura's claims that behaviour can be acquired through observation and imitation -Weakness is evidence that genetic factors are important as well as environmental influences. Kendler et al (2015) showed identical twins are more similar in levels of aggression than non-identical twins. This suggests social behaviour is genetically influenced and not a product of experiences of modelling. However, Bandura didn't entirely ignore biological factors. He claimed behaviours aren't solely determined by social learning - it is the way its expressed that is learned not the actual urge to be aggressive -Strength is it explains the alleged effect of media violence on aggression through violent TV, film and videogames. SLT helps us predict when this might occur e.g. when the aggressor is attractive or high status

Question 30

What was the aim of Bandura's 1961 study?

Answer 30

To see whether aggressive behaviour could be acquired through observation of aggressive models

Question 31

What was the procedure of Bandura's 1961 study?

Answer 31

-Lab experiment using matched pairs design -36 boys and 36 girls ages 3-6 years selected from Stanford Uni Nursery in California -Children were randomly allocated for one of the 3 conditions: Aggressive group - observed aggressive adult models hurting the bobo doll Non aggressive group - assembling mechanical toys Control group - no model present

Question 32

What were the findings of Bandura's 1961 study?

Answer 32

-Children who had witnessed the aggressive model were likely to completely or partially imitate aggression -Children who had observed non-aggressive behaviour or those in the control group displayed less aggression -Boys were more likely to imitate aggression shown by a same sex model than an opposite-sex model and more likely overall to imitate physical aggression

Question 33

What was the conclusion of Bandura's 1961 study?

Answer 33

Social behaviour such as aggression can be acquired by imitation of models. Imitation is more likely when the modelled behaviour is gender - typical and when the model and observer are of the same gender

Question 34

Evaluation of Bandura's 1961 study

Answer 34

-Strength is design of the experiment had clever features that reduced the impact of extraneous variables and enhanced internal validity of the study. Children taking part in each condition were matched for aggression, reducing the impact of individual differences. Observing the children one at a time controlled for conformity effects -Weakness is it was conducted under artificial conditions. The experiment was in a lab in which aggression was measured through playing with a doll which is an atypical situation. This means the experiment lacked external validity. -Can be applied to explaining how children can acquire aggression behaviours from adult models. This has important implications in policy around custody and parental contact where fathers have history of violence. This application of Bandura's research demonstrates its significance in shaping our thoughts and social policy when it comes to risk of exposing children to violent adult models

Question 35

What was the aim of Bandura's 1963 study?

Answer 35

To investigate whether a filmed model would have the same effect as a live model on children's aggression

Question 36

What was the procedure of Bandura's 1963 study?

Answer 36

-Lab experiment using independents group design -48 boys and 48 girls ages 39-52 months selected from Stanford Uni Nursery -Children were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: Live aggression - watched an adult aggress towards a bobo doll Filmed realistic aggression - watched behaviour displayed on a screen Cartoon aggression - Watched on TV a model dressed as a black cartoon cat Control group - Didn't watch aggression

Question 37

What was the findings of Bandura's 1963 study?

Answer 37

-Three experimental groups all displayed increased aggression: 83 Live, 93 filmed realistic, 99 cartoon -The differences were not significant between the experimental groups -There was a significant difference between the experiment groups and control

Question 38

What was the conclusion of Bandura's 1963 study?

Answer 38

-Exposure to live or filmed aggression increases the likelihood of aggression in response to frustration, even if its a cartoon figure

Question 39

What was the aim of Bandura's 1965 study?

Answer 39

To consider whether reinforcement / punishment of an aggressive model would influence the aggression displayed by observers

Question 40

What was the procedure of Bandura's 1965 study?-

Answer 40

-32 boys and 32 girls ages 42-71 months from Stanford Uni Nursery -Children were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: Model rewarded - children saw a second adult praised for aggression with a chocolate and drink Model punished - second adult scolded the model and spanked with a rolled up magazine No consequence - model was neither punished nor reinforced

Question 41

What were the findings of Bandura's 1965 study?

Answer 41

-Children in the model punished condition were significantly less aggressive than the other two groups

Question 42

What was the conclusion of Bandura's 1965 study?

Answer 42

Vicarious reinforcement reduces imitated aggression. However, reinforcement is a more powerful influence than aggression

Question 43

Evaluation of 1963 and 1965 Bandura's study

Answer 43

-Strength is design of the experiment had clever features that reduced the impact of extraneous variables and enhanced internal validity of the study. Children taking part in each condition were matched for aggression, reducing the impact of individual differences. However, Bandura's research only showed short-term effects, and aggression was only shown towards the doll. Therefore, the findings don't necessarily explain aggressive behaviour in everyday life -Weakness of both studies is elements of procedure could have cued children as to how they were expected to behave. Noble's study reports that children may have expected to aggress the Bobo doll. This means the experimental procedure may lack external validity -Strength is it has informed the development of Sabido method. Sabido pioneered the use of telenovelas to tackle specific social problems in countries all over the world. Viewers identify with popular characters who become role models and research has shown these role models prompt behaviour change. This demonstrates the significant contribution of SLT in promoting behaviours which are of benefit to individuals and wider society

Question 44

How does classical conditioning cause phobias?

Answer 44

Classical conditioning of a phobia involves learning to associate one stimulus with another. One stimulus triggers no fear and other stimulus already triggers fear response. Through association, neutral stimulus produces conditioned response of fear

Question 45

How does operant conditioning cause phobias?

Answer 45

Mowrer demonstrated operant conditioning by conditioning a rat to develop avoidance response to a shock - the rat was placed in a cage with electric shocks. The rat could escape but escape was negatively reinforced so avoidance response was learned Mowrer said avoidance and negative reinforcement maintain phobias

Question 46

Evaluation of learning theory of phobias

Answer 46

-Strength is evidence from human/animal studies for role of conditioning and social learning in acquisition of phobias. This is proven through Rayner's study for maintenance of fear and Cook / Mineka for social learning Weakness is same phenonema associated with acquisition of phobias can't be explained by learning alone. We don't acquire fears of hazardous things through learning so this isn't a complete explanation of phobias -Strength is many real-world associations in therapies for phobias. This is illustrated through system desensitisation and flooding

Question 47

What is system desensitisation?

Answer 47

A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobia anxiety through principles of classical conditioning. A new response to the phobic stimulus is learned through counterconditioning

Question 48

How does system desensitisation work?

Answer 48

Anxiety hierarchy: -Constructed by client and therapist -List of situations related to phobic stimulus that provokes anxiety arranged from least to most frightening Relaxation: -Therapist teaches client to relax -Clients can be taught to imagine themselves in relaxing situations Exposure: -Client is exposed to phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state -Happens several times going up the anxiety hierarchy

Question 49

Evaluation of system desensitisation?

Answer 49

-Strength is these methods are effective in treatment of specific phobias. e.g. Gilroy et al (2003) compared clients receiving these methods for spider phobia with a control group. Results show the participants that did SD had less fear than control group -Weakness is may not be as effective in all cases. SD only tackles behavioural phobias and less about symptoms linked to history of trauma

Question 50

What is flooding?

Answer 50

Exposing phobic clients to their phobic stimuli immediately. -A learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimuli is encountered without unconditioned stimulus. The result is the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response -It isn't unethical but its an unpleasant experience so participants must give informed consent beforehand

Question 51

Evaluation of flooding?

Answer 51

-Strength is flooding is quick and efficient over alternatives. This means clients are free from their symptoms as soon as possible so treatment is cheaper -Weakness is flooding may not be effective for social phobias. This may be because social phobias have cognitive aspects like unpleasant thoughts about a social situation. This means flooding cannot be the sole treatment on offer for phobias because it tackles behavioural responses only