Context Dependent Memory PI- 1

Question 1

What do you understand by the term Context Dependent?

Answer 1

In this investigation, context dependent will be operationalised as whether pps have access to the same conditions at the point of retrieval as they experienced at the point of encoding. Participants will either have a consistent context (music played at the point of encoding and retrieval) or an inconsistent context (music played at the point of encoding, but silence during retrieval)

Question 2

What is your interpretation of the term memory task?

Answer 2

In this investigation, memory/memory task will be operationalised as the number of words correctly recalled
from a list of 30 words.

Question 3

Identify the aim of your experiment on a context dependent memory task:

Answer 3

Do participants recall more words when tested under the same conditions as encoding than participants tested under different conditions?

Question 4

Pre-existing research

Answer 4

Godden and Baddeley (1975) indicates the importance of setting for retrieval. Baddeley asked 18 deep-sea divers to memorize a list of 36 unrelated words of two or three syllables. One group did this on the beach and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the words half of the beach learners remained on the beach, the rest had to recall underwater. Half of the underwater group remained there and the others had to recall on the beach. The results show that the external context acted as a cue to recall as the participants recalled more words when they learnt and recalled the words in the same environment than when they learned and recalled the words in different environments.

Grant et al. (1998) found that performance was significantly better when the studying and testing environments were the same (i.e., silent study - silent testing or noisy study - noisy testing). This was true for both multiple-choice test questions and short-answer test questions. Thus, memory and recall were better when the context/environment was the same than when it was different.

Question 5

Operationalised independent and dependent variable

Answer 5

IV: Whether pps have a consistent (music-music) or inconsistent context (music-silence) at the point of encoding and retrieval of a list of words
DV: The number of words correctly recalled from a list of 30 words.

Question 6

operationalised experimental/alternative hypothesis:

Answer 6

Participants who experience a consistent context (music at the point of encoding and retrieval) will recall more words from a list of 30 words than participants who experience an inconsistent context (music at the point of encoding, but silence at retrieval).

Question 7

Justify why you chose to use a directional or non-directional hypothesis:

Answer 7

A directional hypothesis is justified as there is a well-established bank of pre-existing research which indicates that reinstating the external context at the point of encoding makes recall easier by providing relevant information

Question 8

Null hypothesis

Answer 8

There will be no difference in the number of words correctly recalled from a list of 30 words by participants who experience a consistent context (music at the point of encoding and retrieval) and participants who experience an inconsistent context (music at the point of encoding, but silence at retrieval). Any difference found occurs by chance.

Question 9

Why was lab experiment chosen as methodology

Answer 9

• High levels of control over variables including the independent variable (whether pps experience a consistent or inconsistent context at the point of encoding and retrieval) and the ability to reduce the impact of confounding/extraneous variables (e.g. time of day/noise/distraction) which may affect one’s performance on the memory task through the use of a standardised setting = HIGH INTERNAL RELIABILITY & VALIDITY
• Increased replicability – the use of a lab experiment and the standardised setting provided would allow for greater replicability to assess the reliability of findings (do we get the same outcomes on the memory test where context conditions are replicated on different occasions?)
• A natural experiment was not selected as this would have been very time consuming/challenging to investigate by waiting for the independent variable of consistent or inconsistent context to vary naturally on a large enough sample of pps to produce reliable data.

Question 10

Why was independent groups design chosen as experimental design

Answer 10

• Reduced chance of order effects and demand characteristics as pps are only involved in one half of the investigation. E.g. pps in the consistent context condition will not experience the inconsistent context condition and vice versa. These pps will be unaware that another group of pps will have experienced only silence at the point of recall. As pps will only take part in one condition, they will remain naïve to the opposite side of the test and are less likely to alter behaviour to suit the needs of the experimenter and will be less likely to become bored, tired or practiced. If pps were to become bored/fatigued in the second condition this could significantly reduce their performance in the memory test and corrupt the study.
• Greater reliability will be created as the same 30 words can be used for the memory test in both
  conditions. This will increase the fairness of the conditions and the level of control over variables.
• A matched pairs design would have been too time consuming to carry out due to the restricted time allowed for the investigation as it is being conducted as a school-based assignment.

Question 11

Why was a lab chosen as location of experiment

Answer 11

• High levels of control over variables including the independent variable (whether pps experience a consistent or inconsistent context at the point of encoding and retrieval) and the ability to reduce the impact of confounding/extraneous variables (e.g. time of day/noise/distraction) which may affect one’s performance on the memory task through the use of a standardised SETTING = HIGH INTERNAL RELIABILITY & VALIDITY
• Increased replicability – the use of a standardised lab SETTNIG would allow for greater replicability to assess the reliability of findings (do we get the same outcomes on the memory test where context conditions are replicated on different occasions?)
• Other locations would not have been possible on this occasion e.g. online as it would not be possible to control the context that pps were exposed to so readily if they were conducting the memory test remotely.

Question 12

Describe how the ethical issues that you have identified as relevant in the table above will affect your study

Answer 12

Confidentiality – pps may not wish to be identified as having taken part in the research or linked with the data provided, particularly as this may lead to a stigma against them if they were to score poorly on the memory test.
- Deception – pps will be unaware of the full aims of the investigation and the experience of pps on the opposite side of the investigation e.g. those who are exposed to a consistent context at the point of encoding and retrieval will be unaware that those in the other condition will experience an inconsistent context at the point of encoding and retrieval. Any insight provided as to the true aims may lead to demand characteristics.
- Risk of harm – There could be an element of distress created for pps through embarrassment if they were to obtain a particularly low score on the memory test. Furthermore, the music used to facilitate a change in context may act as an emotional trigger to an individual if they were to associate the music with a distressing memory/experience.
- Consent – valid informed consent becomes an issue due to the element of deception in the study.

Question 13

Explain how you overcame these ethical issues

Answer 13

• Confidentiality – anonymity will be offered and no names will be taken. Pp numbers used rather than names.
• Deception – A debrief will be given to pps at the earliest opportunity to inform of them the true aims of the investigation and the changes made to context on either side of the study. Pps will be offered the retrospective right to withdraw.
• Risk of harm – Debrief used to assess whether undue harm/distress has been caused. Necessary support offered to those who encounter distress. Pps will be informed of right to withdraw in the instructions. Any risk of distress is deemed to be minimal, however, the study will be stopped if harm becomes apparent. Pps will not find out how they performed on the memory test to reduce risk of stress or embarrassment. Harm has also been mitigated by using a generic piece of classical music to create context which is unlikely to be a negative emotional trigger based on the age of those pps involved in the research.
• Consent will be formally sought through a comprehensive information sheet and consent form at the outset of the investigation. Retrospective consent will also be sought once pps are fully aware of the aims and the manipulation of context on both sides of the investigation and their role within it during the debrief.

Question 14

Who are your target population?

Answer 14

Sixth formers aged 16-17

Question 15

Why have you chosen opportunity sampling

Answer 15

• Opportunity sampling has been selected due to its efficiency. There is a 4-week time limit placed on this research study and the opportunity method is quicker and more convenient than a random method of sampling.
• The opportunity method is also selected due to having easy access to a large number of students who fit the criteria of the target population who attend the same sixth form as the researchers.
• some sampling methods e.g. self-selected and snowball sampling methods would result in
  highly biased samples whereby all pps shared particular characteristics. This would reduce the extent to which the results could be generalised. E.g. with self-selected sampling, pps are likely to be more motivated and so may try particularly hard on the memory test and skew data in a particular direction.

Question 16

Are there any potential EXTRANEOUS variables which could compromise/bias the results of the investigation? If so, what are they?

Answer 16

• Time of day – if pps were tested at different times of day then we may be investigating the impact of time on memory as opposed to context.
• Length/familiarity of words: If one group of pps were tested with a word list that has words which are more complex and unfamiliar than the other list this could act as an alternative explanation for memory test performance.
• Music/Context – If one group of pps were tested with a different piece of music to another group then this would alter the context that pps were exposed to and one group of pps may have a more distinctive context than another which may affect memory performance.

Question 17

Are there any potential CONFOUNDING variables which could compromise/bias the results of the investigation? If so, what are they?

Answer 17

• Sleep/hunger/motivation: pps may differ in the extent to which they were hungry/tired/motivated at the point of the memory test, which could impact the outcomes of SOME pps. If the memory test were repeated on a different day then you may get a different outcome from those individuals.
• Familiarity with the Music: SOME pps may be familiar with the classical piece of music being used to create context e.g. if they belong to an orchestra. This may affect the extent to which that music creates a distinctive context and affects performance on the memory test for those individuals.
• Additional learning needs E.G. Dyslexia: SOME pps may have a recognised condition which would affect their ability to read and memorise a list of words and could provide an alternative explanation for performance on the memory task.

Question 18

How do you intend to turn such CONFOUNDING/EXTRANEOUS variables into controlled variables and so eliminate their impact on the investigation?

Answer 18

• Time of day – all pps will complete the first phase of the investigation, where they are exposed to
music by way of creating context and the second phase of the investigation where they complete the memory task at the same time of day.

• Sleep/hunger/motivation – the encoding and recall phases of the context dependent memory task will be completed in the afternoon session of the school day which follows the school lunchbreak to ensure pps have had a chance to eat and rest.

• ALN e.g. Dyslexia – There will be a check at the bottom of the memory test sheet which will ask pps if there if they have a recognised learning need which may have affected their ability to complete the task. Where pps respond yes, there data will be discounted.

• Familiarity with the Music – The music selected for the investigation is a famous piece of classical
music and it is hoped that pps of the same age will be similarly familiar with the music. There will,
however, be a check of familiarity at the bottom of the memory test sheet and any pps who suggest that they are very familiar with the piece will be discounted from the research.

• Length/familiarity of words – all words will be carefully selected to ensure their frequent use in
everyday language and be 5-letter words.

• Music/Context – pps will all experience the same piece of classical music by way of creating context. The music will have the same duration and be played at the same volume in the same room for each set of pps.

Question 19

Are there any issues of reliability within the current investigation (internal and/or external reliability)?

Answer 19

• External reliability: pps results of the number of words recalled from a list was recorded after just one trial. This could have been a fluke/chance happening.
• Different researchers – if different researchers collected data from the different groups of pps. (Consistent context/Inconsistent context/Control group) this may mean that pps may be interacted with differently (levels of encouragement or body language), this could impact how hard pps were willing to try on the memory task.
• Internal reliability: pps may have differed substantially in the amount of effort applied in retention/recall of the word lists. This could have a significant impact on outcomes.

Question 20

How would you implement test retest reliability

Answer 20

Test-retest: participants would complete the context dependent memory task (learning a list of words) under a consistent or inconsistent context, a carefully selected period of time would be left (long enough that students have forgotten the words from the list, but not so long that their memory/recall abilities could have changed in some way) and then the same participants would be re-tested following the same procedures. The two scores from the testing and re-testing phases are correlated. A significant positive correlation = high external reliability.

Question 21

How could you improve the reliability of the research

Answer 21

• Fluke result - May have been best to take an average score across 3 memory trial with different lists of words to avoid fluke scores.
• Check of engagement – pps could be asked whether a particular word was in the list following their recall task. If the students answer correctly, this will hopefully demonstrate if they engaged sufficiently with the word lists during the testing phase. The scores of pps who answer the question incorrectly could be discounted.
• Same researchers – The same individuals would be utilised to collect data from each group of participants. This would ensure greater levels of consistency in each participant’s experience and ensure procedures were truly standardised.

Question 22

What issues of validity

Answer 22

• Researcher Bias – the researcher(s) may alter their body language or the extent to which they encourage pps across the consistent and inconsistent context conditions of the investigation. This is likely due to their predictions that a consistent context would have a beneficial effect on memory. This could result in different levels of investment in the memory task by pps experiencing a consistent and an inconsistent context.
• Population validity – sample bias exists due to the restricted age range of pps being tested. As an opportunity sample of 16-17year olds is being utilised, we are severely restricted in the extent to which we can generalise findings to other age groups.
• Mundane Realism – the task of learning 30 x 5 letter words from a list is artificial and unrealistic of the type of ways that we need to engage our memories in the real world. It may be difficult to generalise what we learn from the current investigation to the way in which context affects memory in day-to-day life.
• Demand Characteristics – Pps, particularly those in the inconsistent context condition may use the change in context from the encoding phase to recall to try and guess the aims of the investigation. They may then use this insight to manipulate their performance on the memory task.

Question 23

How would you implement face and construct validity

Answer 23

• Face validity – carry out an ‘eyeball test’ to see if it looks as though the investigation will appropriately measure the effect of context on memory. If a non-expert agrees that the purpose of the investigation seems sound, and that manipulating context through the presence of music is appropriate, then the experiment is said to have validity.
• Concurrent validity – the findings of the investigation will be compared to those of a previously validated study of context dependent memory where context is manipulated through the presence of music e.g. Grant et al. (1998). If similar results are produced then the findings will be thought to be valid.

Question 24

How could you improve the validity of the investigation?

Answer 24

• Population validity – increase the age range of participants and apply a different sampling technique to ensure a more varied sample of pps e.g. random sampling.
• Field experiment – carry out a field-based investigation with higher rates of mundane realism e.g. participants could be asked to sit a test either in their classroom or an alternative venue in which they have not been taught. This would allow for a far more realistic assessment of the impact of context on memory with high levels of mundane realism and application to the everyday world
• Researcher Bias – use of independent, uninvolved individuals for the purpose of data collection so that double-blind techniques can be adopted and neither the researcher nor the participants will be aware of how the change in context will affect memory scores and so their interactions with pps in the consistent and inconsistent context conditions should be the same.
• Demand Characteristics – pps will be given minimal information about the nature of the investigation in the standardised instructions. They will be unaware that the context that they are experiencing will be different to that of people in other conditions.

Question 25

Give a step-by-step description of your procedures:

Answer 25

1. Participants were identified using opportunity sampling and randomly allocated to either the consistent context (music-music), inconsistent context (music-silence) or control conditions (independent groups design). 2. Pps were recruited as those studying A Level Chemistry at a High School in South Wales, the same school as attended by researchers. 3. Pps were taken to a standardised environment (conference facility) for testing in their individual groups. 4. Pps were read the standardised instructions in order to brief them about the investigation. This assured pps of the anonymity offered on the data provided as well as offering the right to withdraw. 5. Pps were asked to consent for their involvement in the research by signing a consent form. 6. Participants were provided with a list of 30 x 5-letter words which were printed on to sheets of A4 white paper. Pps were asked to study the words for the purpose of a recall test for two minutes. The word lists were studied with background music (consistent and inconsistent context conditions) or in silence (control condition) depending upon group allocation. 7. Words identified for use had been selected using an internet-based random word generator. 8. Music was a classical piece sourced from a YouTube clip – The Blue Danube by Johann Strauss II 9. After 2 minutes word lists were removed and pps left the testing environment. 10. Pps were invited back, to the same standardised environment the next day. Pps were asked to recall as many of the words from the original list of 30 as possible by writing them down on a plain A4 sheet of paper. They had 2 minutes for recall. This was also conducted with music for the consistent context condition and in silence for those in the inconsistent and control conditions. 11. On completion, participants returned their sheets of paper and were debriefed. 12. Results were collated and analysed across the conditions

Question 26

Explain why the descriptive statistics selected were appropriate for use for this investigation:

Answer 26

The mean allows for easy comparison of memory performance between the participants exposed to a consistent context (music-music) and those exposed to a negative context (music-silence). The range provides detail as to the variation within the data set, so we can see if participants who experienced a consistent/inconsistent context were performed similarly or differently to one another in their memory scores. The bar chart allows for easy visual comparison of the memory performances across the two conditions – consistent and inconsistent context. The graphical display will make spotting trends/similarities/differences across consistent/inconsistent context conditions more efficient.

Question 27

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the descriptive methods selected for use?

Answer 27

☺ Mean – highly sensitive due to taking all values into consideration. Most accurate form of producing the average or central figure. ☺ Range – easy to calculate & provides an alternate way of describing the data. Two data sets could have the same or similar means, but quite different ranges. 😩 Mean – difficult to calculate in comparison to other methods of central tendency e.g. median and mode. Affected by extreme scores as all values are considered. 😩 Range – effected by extreme outlying scores, as only the biggest and smallest values are taken into consideration.

Question 28

Data

Answer 28

Mean in consistent context - 7.7 Mean in inconsistent context - 5.3 Range in consistent context- (11-4=7) Range in inconsistent context- (10-1=9)

Question 29

Explain why your choice of graphical representation is appropriate for the data collected:

Answer 29

A bar chart provides a clear visual representation of results to spot trends and data were non-continuous as pps belonged to different groups – those who experienced a consistent context (music-music) and those who experienced an inconsistent context (music-silence).

Question 30

Explain why your choice of inferential statistic is appropriate: (Mann Whitney U)

Answer 30

- Test of difference was required as a difference was predicted between the number of words that would be accurately recalled in the consistent (music-music) and inconsistent (music-silence) context conditions. - Data was at least ordinal as pps produced a score of how many words they were accurately able to recall from a list of 30 words. - Independent groups design – different pps featured in the consistent and inconsistent context conditions.

Question 31

Briefly summarise your findings

Answer 31

There was a small, but significant difference in the mean number of words recalled by pps in the consistent (music-music) and inconsistent context (music-silence) conditions. Those exposed to a consistent context recalled a mean of 7.7 words Those exposed to an inconsistent context recalled a mean of 5.3 words Those in the consistent context condition showed less variation in their recall of words with a range of 7, compared to a range of 10 for the inconsistent context condition.

Question 32

What conclusion(s) can you draw from these findings:

Answer 32

A significant difference was found in the number of words that were correctly recalled when pps experienced a consistent context (music at the point of encoding and retrieval) compared to when pps experienced an inconsistent context (music at the point of encoding, but silence at retrieval). We can conclude that a consistent context, at least when context is created through the presence of music, has a positive impact on memory. The pps in this research saw an increase in the number of words that they were able to recall from a list of 30 words when the same music was played at the point of encoding and recall. It is believed that there are many reasons as to why an improvement in recall was seen in the consistent context condition. Such reasons include: - the external context acted as a cue/prompt to recall as the participants recalled more words when they learnt and recalled the words under the same conditions than when they learned and recalled the words in different environments. - information about the physical surroundings (external context) is stored at the same time as information is learned. Reinstating the external context makes recall easier by providing relevant information.

Question 33

Are there any ways in which the current research could be developed/extended in the future to address additional research questions and further increase knowledge and understanding of human behavio

Answer 33

Change in Context – In the current research study, context was altered through the presence of music at the point of recall and encoding. This was, therefore, an environmental based context. It would be interesting to see if a change in internal context or mood would have a similar positive effect on memory. This would be interesting to observe as internal context would be more easily manipulated to enhance one’s memory at the point of recall, as it is not always possible to reinstate an environmental context. Change in Music – In the current study, context was manipulated through the presence of music, with a piece of classical music being selected. It would, therefore, be interesting to investigate if other genres of music have a similar positive effect on memory. It is possible that the use of classical music was quite distinctive to the participants as this is not necessarily the preferred type of music for 16-17-year-old pupils, the music also had no words to distract pps from the memory task. We might question if there is a type of music to create the optimum context for enhanced memory performance? Change in Memory Task – The current study demonstrated that a consistent context had a beneficial impact on the recall of words. This was an artificial stimulus and quite unlike the details that we typically store in our memories as part of day-to-day life. It would be interesting to investigate if a similar effect is seen with a different stimulus, so pictures, faces, details of a crime scene for example. This would also have the benefit of having greater mundane realism.

Question 34

Explain at least two ways in which you could improve your research if it were to be repeated.

Answer 34

- Sample Size: Due to the time of the school year at which the investigation was being conducted, the sample size was highly restricted. This means that the results may not reflect the wider target population and there would be limited generalisability of the data. Collecting data from just 9 pps who experienced a consistent and 9 individuals subjected to an inconsistent context was not a sufficiently big sample to reach a conclusion that a consistent context at the point of encoding and recall would be beneficial for all people’s memory performances. It may therefore be more appropriate to adopt a different sampling method in future e.g. snowball sampling as this would ensure that more pps could be brought into the process. It is likely that the 18 pps recruited would have known more potential pps of a similar age, that they could have encouraged to also participate, so the overall sample size would have been much larger and conclusions more accurate based upon the increased amount of data available for analysis. - Improved Ecological Validity & Mundane Realism: A significant problem for the current investigation was that the memory task of learning 30 words from a list was very artificial. It was felt that context may impact the recall of 30 words differently to the type of material that we have to recall in our memory stores as part of day-to-day life. This could be addressed by conducting a field experiment with higher rates of mundane realism e.g. participants could be asked to sit a test either in their classroom or an alternative venue in which they have not been taught. This would allow for a far more realistic assessment of the impact of context on memory with high levels of mundane realism and application to the everyday world. - Sample bias - Participants were taken from a small and select proportion of the population – all were 16 or 17 years of age and studying A Level Chemistry. The concern is that as these students came from an opportunity sample of a science-based subject that they think in a more logically and recall information in a different way to the average person. This sample would be improved by using a random sampling technique and selecting pupils from an entire sixth form population. This would ensure that findings were more generalisable to the target population.

Question 35

Are there any practical applications for your findings in the real world?

Answer 35

- Student Revision/Education – The current study demonstrated that a consistent context at the point of encoding and recall (through the presence of music) led to enhanced memory performance. This information could be used to great effect by students who are revising and preparing for exams and they should be advised to this effect by the leaders of their learning. Students should be advised that when they are revising, they need to replicate as far as possible the conditions under which they will be examined. This means, as students will be examined under silent conditions, they should also revise in silence and avoid distraction e.g. through music/TV to achieve consistency of context and increase the chances of strong recall in their exam. - Business/Industry – Furthermore, business leaders could use the outcomes of the current study to increase productivity/concentration/recall of their workforce. Providing their workforce with a consistent context e.g. through the presence of pleasant smells, a continuous playlist, working in the same room with the same colleagues, then this is likely to increase the output of the staff and ultimately increase profits. This in turn helps to raise the standard of living for all, as when businesses are performing well, then they unemployment is reduced and more taxes being directed towards the ‘social purse’.