Core Content 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Question 1

What was the intended purpose of the League of Nations?

Answer 1

To put into practice the principle of collective security in order to discourage aggression from any nation and to settle disputes peacefully, to encourage nations to co-operate, especially in business and trade, to encourage nations to disarm and to improve the living and working conditions of people around the world.

Question 2

Why was the League of Nations’ Council set up in this way?

Answer 2

With both permanent and temporary members, the Council met more often than the Assembly; each of the permanent members of the Council had a veto, meaning that one permanent member could stop the Council acting even if all other members agreed. The main aim of the Council was to resolve disputes by talking, however, if this did not work, the Council could use a range of powers, including moral condemnation, sanctions and military force.

Question 3

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ Council?

Answer 3

Using vetoes defies the point of the League for the victors held ruling power over others in the Council; the Eurocentric exclusivity of the Council made it difficult for the international community to justify its purpose.

Question 4

Why was the League of Nations’ Assembly set up in this way?

Answer 4

The Assembly was the League’s ‘Parliament’, in which every country sent a representative. Although it only met once a year, it could recommend action to the Council, along with admit new members to the League. All members, regardless of status, had to agree on decisions made by the Assembly - it had to be unanimous.

Question 5

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ Assembly?

Answer 5

Unanimous decisions are hard to achieve for all countries have separate hopes and aims, meaning that decisions were rarely passed. Furthermore, admitting new members to the League threatened the way in which the Assembly could run.

Question 6

Why was the League of Nations’ Permanent Court of International Justice set up in this way?

Answer 6

The Permanent Court of International Justice was based at the Hague in the Netherlands and was made up of judges from the member countries in order to settle disputes amongst countries successfully.

Question 7

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ Permanent Council of International Justice?

Answer 7

The Court had no way of making sure that countries followed its rulings, essentially deeming it useless.

Question 8

Why was the League of Nations’ International Labour Organisation set up in this way?

Answer 8

The International Labour Organisation brought together employers, governments and representatives to improve the conditions of working people throughout the world; it collected statistics and information about working conditions and how to improve them, through persuading member countries to adopt its generations.

Question 9

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ International Labour Organisation?

Answer 9

In terms of the ILO, many employers were uninterested in improving the working conditions of their employees because, after the war, they did not have the funds to do so.

Question 10

Why was the League of Nations’ Secretariat set up in this way?

Answer 10

The Secretariat was a sort of civil service, serving all the other bodies within the League. It kept records of League meetings and prepared reports, playing a key role in bringing together experts from across the world on key issues such as health, disarmament and economic matters.

Question 11

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ Secretariat?

Answer 11

There was no force that had the power to implement and enforce the decisions taken by these bodies, such as an army or police force.

Question 12

How was the Mandates Commissions set up?

Answer 12

WWI had led to many former colonies of Germany and her allies ending up as League of Nations mandates ruled by Britain and France on behalf of the League - this was made up of teams of expert advisers whose job was to report to the League on how people in the mandates were being treated. Their aim was to make sure that Britain and France acted in the interests of the people that territory, not its own interests.

Question 13

How as the Refugees Committee set up?

Answer 13

At the end of WWI, there were hundreds of refugees who had fled from the areas of conflict. Some were trying to get back from their homes; others had no homes to go to. The most pressing problems were in former Russian territories: the Balkans, Greece, Armenia and Turkey. It was a mammoth task.

Question 14

How was the Slavery Commission set up?

Answer 14

This Commission worked to abolish slavery around the world. It was a particular issue in East Africa but slavery was also a major concern in other parts of the world. There were also many workers who were not technically slaves but were treated like slaves. The Commission tried to help them too.

Question 15

How was the Health Committee set up?

Answer 15

This attempted to dealt with the problem of dangerous diseases and to educate people about health and sanitation. WWI had brought about rapid developments in medicine and ideas about public health and disease prevention. The Health Committee brought experts together and worked with charities and many other independent agencies to collect statistics about health issues, to spread the new ideas to develop programmes to fight disease.

Question 16

Were there any problems with the League of Nations’ Commissions?

Answer 16

The League’s commissions had little force to apply their solutions to real-life situations, meaning that their purpose was futile. Specifically, the Mandates Commissions were too useless for victors - Britain and France - were imposing restrictions upon themselves, which was in their favour. Many of the commissions failed in their jobs, meaning that the way in which they were set up was unsuccessful.

Question 17

Why did the US Senate refuse to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and why did Wilson’s Republican opponents win the Presidential Election in 1920?

Answer 17

Wilson failed to gain support of the Congress due to the American reluctance towards the Treaty of Versailles and the risk that the League posed to American trade and business. Critics of Wilson’s plan, Harding and his Republican Party, put forward a powerful opposition and seized power in the 1920 Presidential Election by a landslide victory.

Question 18

What were the problems with Britain having a lead role in the League of Nations?

Answer 18

Britain was poorly placed to take on the role of guiding any policy taken by the League, for it had been weakened by the First World War and was not quite the major power that it had once been. Being a leader of the League of Nations posed a real problem: for example, British politicians were more interested in rebuilding British trade and looking after the British empire than being an international police force.

Question 19

What were the problems with France having a lead role in the League of Nations?

Answer 19

Again, France was also one of the most powerful countries in the League and, due to the fact that it had suffered such economic detriment as a result of the War, it was ill-equipped to hold this position. Having not fully recovered, France’s main concern was still Germany; it was worried that, without an army of its own, the League was too weak to protect France from its powerful neighbour, which made France quite prepared to bypass the League if necessary to strengthen its position against Germany.

Question 20

What were the problems with Italy having a lead role in the League of Nations?

Answer 20

Following the War, Italy was in a state of economic turmoil: the Italian government had spent more in the space of a couple of years than in the previous fifty! Factors such as debt, food shortages, bad harvests and significant inflationary increases effectively bankrupted the country. Facing unemployment (and thus a decline in trade), the country was left weak, and, essentially, divided, meaning that it was unfit to take rule in the League of Nations.

Question 21

What were the problems with Japan having a lead role in the League of Nations?

Answer 21

A fascist dictatorship had overthrown the Japanese government, which was intent on empire-building. For such a reason, Japan suffered a relatively harmful experience whilst a part of the League of Nations, resulting in its withdrawal, in 1933, over the Mukden Incident and their incipient invasion of China, despite the League’s original objection to doing so. Japan was looking to improve its situation following the peace settlement, having been denied their rewards of supporting Britain and France in the War.

Question 22

What were the problems with Germany being banned from the League of Nations?

Answer 22

In hindsight, it is evident that banning Germany from entering the League of Nations was the cause of a series of events that triggered German aggression, ultimately causing the Second World War. If Germany had been permitted a seat, collective security may have been developed, perhaps preventing Hitler’s uprising in the 1930s.

Question 23

What were the problems with the USSR being banned from the League of Nations?

Answer 23

Russia’s communist government caused fear amongst the Europeans, and, for such a reason, it was banned from the League of Nations; this would have caused further discontent amongst the population, which defies the founding principles of the League. Leaving the USSR to its own devices would have encouraged it to continue in such a manner, causing more detriment to the international community.

Question 24

What was the dispute over the Aaland Islands?

Answer 24

The first dispute to be satisfactorily resolved by the League of Nations concerned the rival claims of Sweden and Finland to the Aaland Islands situated in the Baltic Sea.

Question 25

Why was the Aaland Islands dispute handled successfully?

Answer 25

Most of the islanders wanted to be ruled by Sweden; the League investigated this matter and awarded the islands to Finland but with safeguards for the islanders including demilitarisation. Sweden accepted the judgement, which, of course, was a success.

Question 26

What was the dispute over Upper Silesia?

Answer 26

Upper Silesia, which contained a valuable industrial area, was located on the border between Germany and Poland. Originally granted to Poland by the draft Treaty of Versailles, the Germans protested to hold a plebiscite in the region.

Question 27

Why was the Upper Silesia dispute handled successfully?

Answer 27

The overall results of the vote suggested it should be awarded to Germany but, in some rural parts of the Silesian territory, there was a clear majority in favour of Poland. Following riots and protests, the League suggested a partition, a decision which was accepted by both sides; Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland while Western Upper Silesia went to Germany.

Question 28

What was the dispute over Mosul?

Answer 28

In 1924, Turkey claimed the Kurdish-populated province of Mosul, which was part of the British territory of Iraq, causing dispute between the countries involved.

Question 29

Why was the Mosul dispute handled successfully?

Answer 29

Having investigated the problem in-depth, the League made a decision in favour of Iraq - a judgement which was gladly accepted by Turkey.

Question 30

What was the dispute over Bulgaria?

Answer 30

In October 1925, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria after an incident on the border in which some Greeks soldiers were killed. Bulgaria appealed for help, sending instructions to its army. The secretary-general of the League acted quickly and decisively, calling a meeting in Paris; he demanded both sides to back down, with Greece withdrawing troops.

Question 31

Why was the Bulgaria dispute handled successfully?

Answer 31

Greece was ordered to pay £45,000 compensation to Bulgaria after its invasion of Bulgarian territory. This was judged a disproportionate response to a shooting incident on the shared border in which Greek sentry was killed in an exchange of fire. Greece accepted the ruling but felt it was unfair that Italy had been treated very differently and more generously in similar circumstances.

Question 32

What happened during the Vilna dispute?

Answer 32

Following the Treaty of Versailles, Vilna, with a largely, Polish population, was made the capital of the newly created state of Lithuania. A Polish army seized the city in 1920 as a result of which Lithuania made an appeal to the League.

Question 33

Why was the Vilna dispute handled unsuccessfully?

Answer 33

The League asked the Polish troops to withdraw while a plebiscite was arranged but Poland refused. The matter was then passed on to the Conference of Ambassadors who awarded Vilna to Poland.

Question 34

What happened during the Ruhr Valley Occupation?

Answer 34

Having not received reparations from Germany in 1922, France, supported by Belgium, decided to take swift and unilateral action by ordering their troops to occupy the Ruhr in January 1923, a region of rich industry.

Question 35

Why was the Ruhr Valley Occupation handled unsuccessfully?

Answer 35

When Germany defaulted on its reparations payment in 1922, the matter should have been referred to the League. This action only served to confirm the impression of many that the League was little more than a victors’ club for the pursuit of victors’ interests.

Question 36

What happened during the Corfu Crisis?

Answer 36

Mussolini ordered the naval bombardment and occupation of the Greek island, Corfu in response to the murder of an Italian general and some of his staff, who had been patrolling part of the border frontier between Greece and Albania. The murders had taken place on Greek soil and Mussolini had immediately demanded 50 million lira, along with the execution of the assassins. When Greece was unable to locate the culprits, Mussolini resorted to direct action. Greece appealed to the League whose initial response was to condemn the invasion, but Mussolini insisted that final arbitration should be passed on to the Conference of Ambassadors, even threatening to leave the League if this did not happen. In the end, Mussolini got his way, with the body ordering Greece to pay compensation directly to Italy. On 27 September, Mussolini withdrew from Corfu, boasting of his triumph.

Question 37

Why was the Corfu Crisis handled unsuccessfully?

Answer 37

There was much anger in the League over the Ambassadors’ actions and League lawyers challenged the decision. However, the ruling was never changed. The impression created was that Italy’s bullying tactics had paid off and that Greece had had to pay an excessive amount of compensation. The Conference of Ambassadors had taken the line of least resistance without regard for the principles of international justice.

Question 38

What was the Geneva Protocol?

Answer 38

Britain and France drew up the Geneva Protocol, in 1924, which said that, if two members were in dispute they would have to ask the League to sort out the disagreement and they would have to accept the Council’s decision. League members were required to agree to the compulsory arbitration of disputes by the Permanent Court of International. Justice failing agreement between the parties concerned. The decision would be backed up by the economic and military power of all members.

Question 39

Why was the Geneva Protocol a failure?

Answer 39

They hoped this would strengthen the League. But before the plan could be put into effect, there was a general election in Britain. Macdonald, the British Prime Minister, lost the election and the new Conservative government refused to approve the scheme, worried that Britain would be forced to agree to something that was not in its own interests. So the Protocol, intended to strengthen the League, in fact weakened it.

Question 40

What was the Washington Naval Conference?

Answer 40

The Washington Naval Conference was an agreement between the USA, Britain, Japan, France and Italy that agreed to set the ratio of their respective warships at a ratio of 5:5:3:1.67:1.67. For all countries other than Italy, it required the scrapping of a significant proportion of their warships.

Question 41

Why did the Washington Naval Conference cause turmoil amongst the leading powers of the League of Nations?

Answer 41

Although the USA, Britain and Italy were mostly pleased with the progress towards disarmament, France felt its military prestige and security was being damaged by being put on a par with its Mediterranean rival Italy. Japan also complained that it suited USA and Britain to set limits at a time that they had already built up their navies but when Japan was a growing and expanding power.

Question 41

Why did the Washington Naval Conference cause turmoil amongst the leading powers of the League of Nations?

Answer 41

Although the USA, Britain and Italy were mostly pleased with the progress towards disarmament, France felt its military prestige and security was being damaged by being put on a par with its Mediterranean rival Italy. Japan also complained that it suited USA and Britain to set limits at a time that they had already built up their navies but when Japan was a growing and expanding power.

Question 41

Why did the Washington Naval Conference cause turmoil amongst the leading powers of the League of Nations?

Answer 41

Although the USA, Britain and Italy were mostly pleased with the progress towards disarmament, France felt its military prestige and security was being damaged by being put on a par with its Mediterranean rival Italy. Japan also complained that it suited USA and Britain to set limits at a time that they had already built up their navies but when Japan was a growing and expanding power.

Question 42

Why did the Washington Naval Conference cause turmoil amongst the leading powers of the League of Nations?

Answer 42

Although the USA, Britain and Italy were mostly pleased with the progress towards disarmament, France felt its military prestige and security was being damaged by being put on a par with its Mediterranean rival Italy. Japan also complained that it suited USA and Britain to set limits at a time that they had already built up their navies but when Japan was a growing and expanding power.

Question 43

What was the Rapallo Treaty?

Answer 43

The Rapallo Treaty was the opening of diplomatic relations between Germany and the USSR, which included a secret agreement that Germany could station and train troops in the USSR in return for them training and giving advice to the Soviet military.

Question 44

What was the Dawes Plan?

Answer 44

Composed by American banker, Charles Dawes, this involved the loaning of $800 million to Germany to help it rebuild its economy in order to pay off reparations. The Plan also involved a restructuring of the reparations payments to lighten the burden on the German economy. It brought the USA out of diplomatic isolation and led to significant economic growth throughout Europe.

Question 45

Who was the Dawes Plan not popular amongst? Why?

Answer 45

The Dawes Plan was not popular with the nationalist community in Germany, who saw it as an acceptance of the legitimacy of the Treaty of Versailles and that it was also quite dependent on the continuation of American money and goodwill.

Question 46

What were the Locarno Treaties?

Answer 46

An agreement signed in Locarno, Switzerland, by the foreign secretaries of Germany, France and Britain (Gustav Stresemann, Aristide Briand and Austen Chamberlain) promising to respect Germany’s Western borders (with France and Belgium) as laid out by the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty was guaranteed by Britain and Italy who agreed to use force against any country who violated the agreement (by invading across the border).

Question 47

Why were the Locarno Treaties important?

Answer 47

It was seen both as bringing Germany back into the international diplomatic and out of disgrace/isolation and also a guarantee that the events of the Ruhr Valley in 1923 would not be repeated. Stresemann, Briand and Chamberlain were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace for their efforts in negotiating the Locarno Treaties.

Question 48

What was the problem with the Locarno Treaties?

Answer 48

The Locarno Treaties said nothing about Germany’s eastern borders (with the newly independent former nations of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). It was also hated as an acceptance of the legitimacy of the Treaty of Versailles by the nationalist community in Germany

Question 49

Why was Germany admitted into the League of Nations?

Answer 49

Having, in the eyes of the international community, proved itself as a rehabilitated power, Germany was brought in as a major diplomatic player once more.

Question 50

Why was a Preparatory Committee for a World Disarmament Conference established?

Answer 50

The League of Nations set up a new commission whose sole responsibility was to organise a World Disarmament Conference which would be attended by all the great powers and would aim at them working out a timetable whereby they could all ‘disarm down to the lowest level consistent with national security’. The conference was not due to take place until 1932 (in Geneva, Switzerland) in order for the Committee to work out the precise logistics of how a conference as challenging and complex as this could work.

Question 51

What was the Kellog Briand Pact?

Answer 51

The Kellog Briand Pact formally denounced armed conflict as ‘a means of international diplomacy’ was signed by 65 countries at the suggestion of the French and American foreign ministers Aristide Briand and Frank Kellogg.

Question 52

What was the Young Plan?

Answer 52

The Young Plan was set up by a Commission chaired by the American lawyer, Owen Young. It reduced Germany’s reparations payments from 132 billion to 112 billion Gold Marks (the German currency at the time).

Question 53

What were the achievements relating to disarmament made by the League of Nations in the 1920s?

Answer 53

The USA, France and Italy were mostly pleased with the progress towards disarmament brought about by the Washington Naval Conference. Establishing a Preparatory Committee for a World Disarmament Conference enabled all of the great powers to work together towards achieving disarmament. The Kellog Briand Pact, of 1928, saw a lot of progress amongst the powers, such as France’s denunciation of arms in settling disputes.

Question 54

What were the limitations relating to disarmament made by the League of Nations in the 1920s?

Answer 54

France felt its military prestige and security was being damaged by being put on par with Italy; at the time, France had a large number of overseas colonies, which, Italy lacked, meaning that France required the use of a navy for security and protection. Japan also complained that it suited USA and Britain to set limits at a time that they had already built up their navies but when Japan was a growing and expanding power. The World Disarmament Conference’s Preparatory Committee proved challenging and complex; it took place during the Great Depression, whilst the Nazis were rising to power. For this reason, the countries of the Conference found it difficult to settle on decisions, as each power had their own aims. Soviet Russia, after the Kellog Briand Pact was settled, refused to disarm, which saw a deal of division between global nations.

Question 55

What were the achievements relating to international cooperation made by the League of Nations in the 1920s?

Answer 55

The Rapallo Treaty, between Germany and the Soviet Union, was successful in that it saw an improvement in friendly relations between the two nations. Furthermore, the Dawes Plan, enabled Germany to help rebuild its economy in order to be able to pay off reparations and trade with other European countries. It also brought the USA out of diplomatic isolation and led to significant economic growth in the towns and cities of Germany and throughout Europe.

Question 56

What were the limitations relating to international cooperation made by the League of Nations in the 1920s?

Answer 56

On the other hand, the Treaty of Rapallo was a major disappointment to France and Great Britain for it included a secret agreement that Germany could station and train troops in the USSR in return for them training and giving advice to the Soviet military. The Dawes Plan was not popular with the nationalist community in Germany who saw it as an acceptance of the legitimacy of the Treaty of Versailles, whilst too being, whilst too being quite dependent on the continuation of American money and goodwill.

Question 57

Why was independence on the USA worrying for the League of Nations in the 1920s?

Answer 57

Independence on the USA was particularly worrying as this country was not a member of the League of Nations and, hence, the latter could not operate would it not be for the input from its leaders; at the time, the USA held such power across nations of the world that without it, international cooperation and global security could not be met by countries that sat in the League.

Question 58

What was achieved at Locarno, in 1925?

Answer 58

The Locarno Treaties promised to respect Germany’s western borders, with France and Belgium, as laid out by the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty was guaranteed by Britain and Italy who agreed to use force against any country who violated the agremeent.

Question 59

What was the significance of the Locarno Treaties?

Answer 59

It was seen as bringing Germany back into the international diplomatic and also a guarantee that the events of the Ruhr Valley, in 1923, would not be repeated. Of course, this was significant for it marked the point at which peace had been mutually guaranteed in this part of Europe and Germany’s admission into the League of Nations, in September 1926, with a seat as a permanent member.

Question 60

Which underlying problems were not addressed/were created by the Locarno Treaties?

Answer 60

The Locarno Treaties did not mention Germany’s eastern borders, with the newly-formed nations of Austria-Hungary - peace could not be settled. Neither France nor Germany were content because France had been given an illusion of security.

Question 61

Why has the period between 1924 and 1929 come to be known as ‘The Locarno Honeymoon’?

Answer 61

This five-year period gained this title because the pacts which were settled during this period were intended to bring calm to Europe; these agreements were met with wild enthusiasm, leading to reconciliation between France and Germany.

Question 62

What were the achievements of the Refugees Committee?

Answer 62

In the first few years of fighting, it is estimated that about 400,000 prisoners were returned to their homes by the League’s agencies. When war led to a refugee crisis in Turkey 1922, hundreds of thousands of people had to be housed in refugee camps. Moreover, the League acted quickly in response to a variety of diseases, such as cholera, smallpox and dysentery, that broke out in camps.

Question 63

What were the achievements of the International Labour Organisation (ILO)?

Answer 63

The International Labour Organisation succeeded in banning poisonous white lead from point and in limiting the hours that small children were allowed to work, campaigning for the improvement of conditions for workers. It also introduced a resolution for a maximum 48-hour week, and an eight-hour day, but a majority of members refused to adopt it because they thought it would cost their industries too much.

Question 64

What were the achievements of the Health Committee?

Answer 64

As well as collecting statistical information and spreading good practice, the Health Committee sponsored research into infectious diseases at institutes in Singapore, London and Denmark, all of which helped to develop vaccines and medicines to fight deadly diseases, such as leprosy and malaria. Regarded as one of the most successful organisations in the League, its work was continued after 1945, in the form of the World Health Organisation.

Question 65

What were the achievements of the Slavery Commission?

Answer 65

On top of helping to free 200,000 slaves in British-owned Sierra Leone, the Slavery Commission organised raids against slave owners and traders in Burma. It challenged the use of forced labour to build the Tanganyika railway in Africa, where the death rate among the African workers was a staggering 50 per cent, eventually, decreasing this to 4 per cent, which it said was ‘a much more acceptable figure’.

Question 66

What were the limitations of the Refugees Committee?

Answer 66

Despite this, the Refugees Committee was constantly short of funds and its work became more difficult in the 1930s as the international situation became tenser and the authority of the League declined.

Question 67

What were the limitations of the International Labour Organisation (ILO)?

Answer 67

Such a body was hampered by lack of funds and lack of power; it could not do much more than ‘name and shame’ countries or international organisations that broke its guidance or regulations.

Question 68

What other action was taken by the League of Nations to work for a better world?

Answer 68

Even in the areas where it could not remove social injustice, the League kept careful records of what was going on and provided information on problems, such as drug trafficking, prostitution and slavery to its member. In order to solve the most damaging problem - drug trafficking - the League blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies which were involved in the illegal drug trade. On top of this, it also made recommendations on practical problems, such as marking shipping lanes and produced an international highway code for road users.

Question 69

How did the Great Depression affect Japan?

Answer 69

The Depression threatened to bankrupt Japan. Its main export was silk to the USA, but the USA was buying less silk. So Japan had less money to buy food and raw materials. Its leaders were all army generals. They decided to build an empire by taking over weaker countries that had the raw materials Japan needed. Accordingly, Japan’s leading powers started by invading Manchuria, China, in 1931.

Question 70

How did the Great Depression affect Germany?

Answer 70

The Depression hit Germany badly. There was unemployment, poverty and chaos. Germany’s weak leaders seemed unable to do anything. As a result, Germans elected Adolf Hitler to lead them, who was not good news for international peace. Upon taking office, he planned to invade Germany’s neighbours and to win back land that Germany had lost in the Great War.

Question 71

How did the Great Depression affect Italy?

Answer 71

In Italy, economic problems encouraged Mussolini to try to build an overseas empire to distract people’s attention from the difficulties the government faced, strongly supported by the population of the country.

Question 72

How did the Great Depression affect the USA?

Answer 72

Although trade had been prospering in the 1920s, seeing the USA as the world’s richest nation, the Wall Street Crash, in 1929, caused economic problems in the country. One way that the League could stop one country invading another was to use economic sanctions, but the Depression made the USA unwilling to help in this because economic sanctions would make its own economy even worse.

Question 73

How did the Great Depression affect Britain?

Answer 73

Britain was one of the leaders of the League of Nations. But, like the USA, it was unwilling to help sort out international disputes while its economy was bad. For example, when Germany invaded Manchuria, it did nothing - it did not support economic sanctions against Japan and did not send troops to protect this region.

Question 74

How did the Great Depression affect France?

Answer 74

In the 1930s, France suffered a very severe decline in real economic activity, causing hyperinflation in the country. Therefore, political unrest broke out, with six different cabinets being formed in a 19-month period.

Question 75

How was the League’s aim to settle disputes through economic sanctions challenged by the Great Depression?

Answer 75

As US loans dried up, businesses in many countries went bankrupt leading to unemployment. For this reason, member nations were economically unable to respond to the imposition of sanctions by the League.

Question 76

How was the League’s aim to settle disputes by using armed forces challenged by the Great Depression?

Answer 76

Since the economies of many members was on the downfall, countries were unwilling to contribute their armies to the cause of the League of Nations and, thus, settling disputes by means of armed forces did not occur at this time.

Question 77

How was the League’s aim to encourage trade and international cooperation challenged by the Great Depression?

Answer 77

In order to protect their own industries, some countries chose to put a variety of tariffs on imports from others; their trading partners, in consequence, followed in their footsteps, causing the downfall of international trade.

Question 78

How was the League’s aim to reach a state of global disarmament challenged by the Great Depression?

Answer 78

Many countries (including Germany, Japan, Italy and Britain) started to rearm as a way of trying to get industries working and giving jobs to the unemployed, but these new armies caused much alarm and tension across the globe.

Question 79

How did the post-WWI settlement cause the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 79

Since 1900, Japan’s economy and population had been growing rapidly. By the 1920s, Japan was a major power with a powerful military, strong industries and a growing empire. Despite this, as a result of both the Great War and its resulting treaties, such as the Washington Naval Conference, Japan was forced to decrease the size of its army and navy, causing anger within the country.

Question 80

How did the impact of the Great Depression cause the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 80

During the Great Depression, China and the USA put up tariffs against Japanese goods; it could not trade with these powers and thus was negatively hit. Army leaders in Japan were in no doubt about the solution to Japan’s problems - Japan would not face these problems if it had an empire to provide resources and markets for Japanese goods.

Question 81

How did the Chinese Civil War cause the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 81

In 1931, an incident in Manchuria gave them an ideal opportunity. The Japanese army controlled the South Manchurian Railway. When Chinese troops allegedly attacked the railway, the Japanese armed forces used this as an excuse to invade and set up a government in Manchukuo (Manchuria), which they controlled. Japan’s civilian government protested but the military was now in charge.

Question 82

Why was the League of Nations unable to respond effectively to the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 82

On the 27th March 1933, Japan left the League of Nations and then, a week later, invaded Jehol Province to the West of Manchuria. The League discussed economic sanctions, banning arms sales to Japan and armed intervention but, in the absence of any U.S. enthusiasm to align with the League of any of these suggestions and due to fear of becoming embroiled in naval conflict with Japan, nothing was agreed. The leading members of the League justified the lack of intervention in Manchuria on the grounds that Japan was a potential force for stability and order in civil war-ravaged China and that Manchuria was geographically far outside the sphere of influence of any of the four remaining permanent members of the Council (Britain, France, Italy and Germany).

Question 83

In what way were the problems caused by the Great Depression the primary reason for the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 83

The League was powerless: it discussed economic sanctions, but without the USA, Japan’s main trading partner, they would be meaningless. At such a time, countries wanted to increase their wealth at the expense of other nations and, hence, most were economically unable to support the decisions made by the League. Japan’s determination to act on its Paris Peace Settlement was, arguably, encouraged and enabled by shortages and other problems caused by the Great Depression. Meanwhile, the economic situation discouraged the League members from further depleting their own struggling economies by imposing sanctions or using military force.

Question 84

In what way was the League’s structural problems the primary reason for the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 84

Britain seemed more interested in keeping up a good relationship with Japan than in agreeing to the imposition of sanctions. The League also discussed banning arms sales to Japan, but the member countries could not even agree in the fear of war; Britain and France would not risk their navies or armies and only the USA and the USSR, who were not members, would have h ad the resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria by force. Such absence from the League also persuaded refraining from the use of sanctions as these countries were still able to trade with Japan. After a year of negotiations, the League settled on a decision which stated that Japan must withdraw from the area - a time through which the country’s army could further develop its presence. The League of Nations’ scope for action was too closely tied to the self-interest of Britain and France, especially in such times.

Question 85

What were the consequences of the League’s failure to deal with the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 85

All sorts of excuses were offered for the failure of the League: Japan was so far away from Europe; Japan was a special case; Japan did have a point when it said that China itself was in the grip of anarchy. However, the significance of the Manchurian Crisis was obvious. As many of its critics had predicted, the League was powerless if a strong nation, like Japan, decided to pursue aggressive policy and invade its neighbours; the Crisis undermined confidence in the League, internationally, confirming suspicions of its Eurocentrism. Japan, which argued that it was restoring order in the context of the Chinese Civil War, committed blatant aggression and got away with it. Back in Europe, both Hitler and Mussolini looked on with interest for this example acted as a type of encouragement to other expansionist powers. Within three years, they would both follow Japan’s example through leaving the League and attempting to expand. For this reason, the levels of trust and respect amongst the leading powers of the world.

Question 86

How had the Manchurian Crisis undermined the work of the World Disarmament Conference?

Answer 86

After the Manchurian Crisis, it became evident that the League of Nations held little power in settling disputes between leading powers, such as Japan, meaning that, in terms of the World Disarmament Conference, little could be agreed upon. Countries also became aware of the fact that, if their disarmament wishes were not met, they could simply leave the League and continue operating in their desired fashion and manner, free of any burdens brought about by the system.

Question 87

Why had the representatives at the Conference unable to agree any practical plans for reducing arms?

Answer 87

Members of the League realised the urgency of the problem: in February 1932, the long-promised Disarmament Conference finally got underway. By July, it had produced resolutions to prohibit bombing of civilian populations, limit the size of artillery and the tonnage of tanks, and prohibit chemical warfare. But there was very little in the resolutions to show how these limits would be achieved. For example, the bombing of civilians was to be prohibited, but all attempts to agree to abolish planes capable of bombing were defeated. Even the proposal to ban the manufacture of chemical weapons was defeated.

Question 88

Why did the situation with Germany undermine the World Disarmament Conference so much?

Answer 88

Germany had the League for six years and, by now, most people now accepted that they should be treated more equally than under the Treaty of Versailles. The question was whether everyone else should disarm to the level that Germany had been forced to, or whether the Germans should be allowed to rearm to a level closer to that of the other powers. In July 1932, having been forced to disarm, Germany proposed all countries to disarm to its level; when the Conference failed to agree to this principle of ‘equality’, the Germans walked out. Later that year, in September, the British sent the Germans a note that went some way to agreeing equality, but the superior tone of the note angered the Germans further. After an agreement had been reached, Germany re-joined the Conference, but shortly after Hitler, who started to ream, in a secret manner, became Chancellor. Although he promised not to rearm if ‘in five years all other nations destroyed their arms’, this failed to occur, causing Hitler to withdraw from the Disarmament Conference and soon after took his country out of the League.

Question 89

How did the British and French disagreement undermine the work on disarmament?

Answer 89

Ultimately, the Conference failed for a number of reasons. Some say that it was all doomed from the start, whilst others argue that no country was serious about achieving a state of disarmament anyway. It did not help that Britain and France were divided on this issue: by 1933, many British people felt that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair and, in fact, to the dismay of the French, the British signed an agreement with Germany that allowed Germany to build its navy as long as it stayed under 35% of the size of the British navy. Britain did not consult either of its allies or the League about this, even though this violated the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 90

How did Italy’s response to the Great Depression encourage Mussolini to invade Abyssinia?

Answer 90

As a result of the Great Depression, Italy was in a deep financial crisis and in desperate need to expand their territory in order to build their economy. In invading Abyssinia, Mussolini would have access to rich soil to which he could use for the benefit of his country.

Question 91

In what way did the geo-political significance of Abyssinia encourage Mussolini to invade Abyssinia?

Answer 91

In 1896, Italian troops had tried to invade Abyssinia but had been defeated by a poorly-equipped army of tribesmen. So that he could take revenge and, also, to seize the fertile land and mineral wealth of the region, he decided to invade Abyssinia.

Question 92

How did the Wal-Wal Oasis Incident encourage Mussolini to invade Abyssinia?

Answer 92

In December of 1934, there was a dispute between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers at the Wal-Wal Oasis - 80km inside Abyssinia. Mussolini took this as his cue, claiming that this was Italian territory and demanded an apology from Abyssinia.

Question 93

How did the Stresa Pact encourage Mussolini to invade Abyssinia?

Answer 93

Signed in 1935, the Stresa Pact - or the Stresa Front - was an agreement between Italy, Britain and France, which was a formal statement against German rearmament and a commitment to stand united against Germany. At the meeting to discuss this, they did not even raise the question of Abyssinia; some historians suggest that this was due to the fact that Britain and France had promised to turn a blind eye to this matter. Nonetheless, following a ballot taken by the League of Nations, Britain began to use military force to defend Abyssinia.

Question 94

What were the consequences of the Abyssinia Crisis?

Answer 94

After continuing to defy the League’s orders and having taking the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa, on 2 May, Haile Selassie - the country’s empire - was forced into exile. Just a week after the above event, Mussolini formally annexed the entire country. The League watching helplessly, Mussolini and Hitler signed an agreement of their own, called the Rome-Berlin axis, which formally marked the point and which Italy and Germany became allies.

Question 95

What was the cause of the League’s failure to sanction Italy and how did this impact its functionality?

Answer 95

By the time the League could settle on any decisions, the damage had already been blown to Abyssinia. Since the USA had not joined the League, the League feared the Americans would not support the sanctions. It also feared that its members’ economic interest wold be further damaged. In Britain, the Cabinet was informed that 30,000 British coal miners were about to lose their jobs because of the ban on coal exports to Italy.

Question 96

What was the cause of the League’s failure in discussions regarding the Suez Canal and how did this impact its functionality?

Answer 96

Failure in closing the canal to Italy was fatal for Abyssinia in that it was the Italians’ main supply route to the region. France and Britain held too much power over the decisions of the League; both Britain and France were afraid that closing the canal could have resulted in war with Italy. Many countries, including France and Britain, feared tethering ties with Italy and, thus, did not want to go to war.

Question 97

What was the cause of the Hoare-Laval Pact and how did this impact the League’s functionality?

Answer 97

Although this event saw the League’s power being undermined, the real damage was to the sanctions discussions - they lost all momentum. Since Britain and France were the most powerful members of the League, the development of such a plan could easily occur - there were no limitations in place to prevent this from happening. The Hoare-Laal Pact proved that countries were solely interested in their own self-interest and not that of others.

Question 98

What was the cause of the Nazi’s remilitarisation of the Rhineland and how did this impact the League’s functionality?

Answer 98

France was now desperate to gain the support of Italy and was no prepared to pay the price of giving Abyssinia to Mussolini and, thus, the French would not support the implementation of sanctions. The League of Nations had failed: the League watched helplessly whilst Italy continued to defy its orders. Collective security had been shown up as an empty promise and the Crisis had serious consequences for world peace.