Costal systems and landscapes.

Question 1

Heysham and Morecambe- four defence options:

Answer 1

Hold the line- retain the existing coastline by maintaining current defences or building new ones where existing structures no longer provide sufficient protection.
Do nothing but monitor- on some stretches of coastline, it is not technically economically or environmentally viable to undertake defence works.
Retreat the line- actively manage the rate and process of the coast retreats.
Advance the line- build new defences seaward of the existing line.

Question 2

Heysham and Morecambe- Background.

Answer 2

Current defences along the 8.5km stretch of coastline are the results of an improvement scheme of existing structures during a multi-phase programme between 1989-2018- costing £30m.
The mix of traditional hard engineering with more contemporary methods to improve the potential for sustainable management.

Question 3

Heysham and Morecambe- Strategy 1.
Rock armour/rip rap to enhance and protect the existing sea wall.

Answer 3

Boulders of locally sourced limestone are placed along the existing promenade and sea walls from the west to 1km east of the town centre.

Question 4

Heysham and Morecambe- Strategy 2.
Breakwaters or rock groynes.

Answer 4

Around ten breakwaters and rock groynes were built at intervals in front of the town.

Question 5

Heysham and Morecambe- Strategy 3.
Repaired and replaced sea walls.

Answer 5

The traditional sea wall was repaired and reinforced. Cost £11m and protects 11,400 homes and 2,246 commercial properties.
Design to last 100 years.

Question 6

Holderness- Case study:
- How long is the coastline?

Answer 6

61km long- Flamborough head to Spurn Head.

Question 7

Holderness- Case study:
- What are the cliffs made of and what type of wave are there?

Answer 7

-Boulder clay ‘till’.
-Destructive waves.

Question 8

Holderness- Case study:
-Coastal process operating in the area.

Answer 8

-Erosion: soft boulder is easily eroded, Great Cowden 10m/year.
-Mass Movement: boulder clay is prone to slumping when wet.
-Transportation: prevailing winds transport material southwards. Winds also create an ocean current that transports material south by longshore drift.
-Deposition: where ocean current meets the outflow of the Humber River, the flow becomes turbulent and sediment is deposited.

Question 9

Holderness- Case study:
-Headland and wave-cut platforms.

Answer 9

To the north the boulder clay overlies chalk. Chalk is harder and less easily eroded so it forms a headland and wave-cut platforms. Flamborough head has features such as stacks, caves and arches.

Question 10

Holderness- Case study:
-Slumping cliffs.

Answer 10

Frequent slumps give the boulder clay cliffs a distinctive shape. In some locations several slumps have occurred and have not yet been eroded, making the cliff tiered.

Question 11

Holderness- Case study:
Beaches.

Answer 11

The area to the south of Flamborough Head is sheltered from wind and waves, and a wide sand and pebble beach has formed.

Question 12

Holderness- Case study:
Sand dunes.

Answer 12

Around Spurn Head, material transported by the wind is deposited, forming dunes.

Question 13

Holderness- Case study:
Spit.

Answer 13

Erosion and longshore drift have created a spit with a recurved end across the mouth of the Humber Estuary- this is called Spurn Head. On the landward side of the spit, estuarine mudflats and saltmarshes have formed.

Question 14

Holderness- Case study:
How much has the coastline retreated in the past 2K years?
How many villages have been lost?

Answer 14

4km
30 villages.

Question 15

Holderness- Case study:
Social, economic and environmental problems.

Answer 15

-Loss of settlements and livelihoods-farmland.
-Loss of infrastructure- gas terminal at Easington only 25m from the cliff edge.
-Loss sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs)- the lagoons near Easington,

Question 16

Holderness- Case study:
Hard engineering protection:

Answer 16

-Bridlington is protected by a 4.7km long sea wall as well as timber groynes.
-Hornsea- concrete sea wall, timber groynes, riprap.
-Mappleton- 2 rock groynes and a 500m long revetment were built (1991). Cost- £2million. Protects the village and B1242 coastal road.
-Skipsea used gabions to protect the caravan park.
-Withernsea- groynes and a sea wall with some rip rap in front of it.
-Easington Gas Terminal protected by revetment.
-Eastern side of Spurn Head- groynes and rip rap.

Question 17

Holderness- Case study:
Negatives of the existing schemes.

Answer 17

-The groynes trap sediment- protects local area but increases cliff erosion down-drift. (Mappleton has caused increased erosion south of it).
-Reduction of sediment increases the risk of flooding along the Humber Estuary as the sediment produced in Holderness used to wash to Humber, this also increases erosion in the Lincolnshire coast.
-Protection of local areas is leading to a build-up of bays forming. this means wave pressure on headlands will increase eventually making the cost of sea defences too high.
-Existing schemes are unsustainable.

Question 18

Sundarbans- Case study:
Where is it?

Answer 18

-Southwest Bangladesh and East India on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal.

Question 19

Sundarbans- Case study:
What is the land/area like?

Answer 19

-Part of the largest mangrove forest in the world.
-Very flat land and low-lying.
-Home to many rare species of plants and animals.
-In its natural state, the coastal system is in dynamic equilibrium.

Question 20

Sundarbans- Case study:
Opportunities for economic benefit:

Answer 20

-Flat, fertile land is good for growing crops (rice).
-Rich ecosystem of the mangrove forest provides crabs, fish, honey and nipa palm leaves used for making roofing and baskets.
- Mangrove forests provide timber for construction, firewood and furniture.

Question 21

Sundarbans- Case study:
Opportunities for services:

Answer 21

-Mangrove forest provides a natural defence against flooding, it acts as a barrier against the rough seas and absorbs excess water in the monsoon season- easier to live and grow crops.
-Mangroves protect the area against coastal erosion.

Question 22

Sundarbans- Case study:
Opportunities for development:

Answer 22

-Tourism opportunities- attracted by wildlife.
-Since 2011, cargo ships transporting goods such as oil and food have been allowed to use some of the waterways.
-A power plant has been proposed just north of the national park, providing energy for people in the region.

Question 23

Sundarbans- Case study:
Risks for occupation and development:

Answer 23

-Lack of fresh water for drinking/irrigation beause the water is diverted upstream for agriculture.
-Growing population leads to mangroves being cut down for more farmland and fuel- increases the risk of flooding and coastal erosion.
-Flooding can lead to salinisation- hard to grow crops.
-Home to dangerous animals.
-Lack of employment and income opportunities.
-Low-lying land at risk from rising sea levels.
-Relatively poor region- 1/5 of households have access to electricity, which makes communication for flood warnings difficult.
-Access is difficult- only a few roads which are poor quality - limits healthcare and education.

Question 24

Backshore-

Answer 24

The area between the high water mark and the landward limit of marine activity. Changes normally only take place here in storm activity.

Question 25

Foreshore-

Answer 25

The area lying between the HWM and the low water mark. The most important zone for marine processes in times that are not influenced by storm activity.

Question 26

Inshore-

Answer 26

The area between the LWM and the point where waves cease to have any influence on the land beneath them.'

Question 27

Offshore-

Answer 27

The area beyond the point where waves cease to impact upon the seabed and in which activity is limited to deposition of sediments.

Question 28

Nearshore-

Answer 28

The area extending seaward from the HWM to the area where waves begin to break.

Question 29

What 3 zones does the nearshore include?

Answer 29

-Swash zone -Surf zone -Breaker zone

Question 30

Swash zone-

Answer 30

The area where a turbulent layer of water washes up the beach following the breaking of a wave.

Question 31

Surf zone-

Answer 31

The area between the point where waves break, forming a foamy, bubbly surface, and where the waves then move up the beach as swash in the swash zone.

Question 32

Breaker zone-

Answer 32

The area where waves approaching the coastline begin to break, usually where the water depth is 5 to 10m.

Question 33

Inputs in a coastal system-

Answer 33

-Energy from waves, winds, tides and sea currents. -Sediment -Geology of the coastline -Sea level change

Question 34

Components in a coastal system-

Answer 34

-Characteristic erosional and depositional coastal landforms.

Question 35

Outputs in a coastal system-

Answer 35

-Dissipation of wave energy -Accumulation of sediment above the tidal limit -Sediment removed beyond local sediment cells.

Question 36

Erosion-

Answer 36

Wearing away of the earth's surface by the mechanical action of processes of glaciers, wind, rivers, marine waves and wind.

Question 37

Fetch-

Answer 37

Refers to the distance of open water over which a wind blows uninterrupted by major land obstacles. The length of fetch helps to determine the magnitude and energy of the waves reaching the coast.

Question 38

Mass movement-

Answer 38

The movement of material downhill under the influence of gravity, but may also be assisted by rainfall.

Question 39

Weathering-

Answer 39

The breakdown and/or decay of rock at or near the earth's surface creating regolith that remains in situ until it is moved by later erosional processes. Can be mechanical, biological or chemical.

Question 40

Features of wind as an input into the coastal system-

Answer 40

-Variations in energy result from variations in strength and duration of wind. -Most coastline will have a prevailing wind direction (one direction) -Length of fetch determines the size and energy of waves. -Vital to wave formation, wave energy depends on strength of wind. -Wind can pick up and remove sediment from the coast and use it to erode other features. (most common abrasion)

Question 41

Wave characteristics:

Answer 41

-Wave height or amplitude: this is the height difference between a wave crest and the neighbouring trough. -Wavelength: distance between successive crests -Wave period: the time for one wave to travel the distance of one wavelength, or the time between one crest and the following crest passing a fixed point.

Question 42

Backwash-

Answer 42

The action of water receding back down the beach towards the sea.

Question 43

Constructive waves-

Answer 43

Waves with low wave height, but with a long wavelength and low frequency or around 6-8 min. Their swash tends to be more powerful than their backwash and as a consequence beach material is built up.

Question 44

Destructive waves-

Answer 44

Waves with a high wave heigh with a steep form and high frequency (10-14 min). Their backwash is generally stronger than their swash, so more sediment is removed than added.

Question 45

Swash

Answer 45

The rush of water up the beach after a wave breaks.

Question 46

Wave refraction-

Answer 46

When waves approach a coastline that is not a regular shape, they are refracted and become increasingly parallel to the coastline. Wave energy become concentrated on the headland causing erosion.

Question 47

Tides-

Answer 47

The periodic rise and fall of the level of the sea in response to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon.

Question 47

Longshore current-

Answer 47

Known as littoral drift, occur as most waves do not hit the coastline head on but approach at an angle to the shoreline . Generates a flow of water running parallel to the shoreline. Not only moves water but transports sediment.

Question 48

Rip currents-

Answer 48

Strong currents moving away from the shoreline. They develop when seawater is piled up along the coastline by incoming waves. Initially the current may run parallel to the coast before flowing out through the breaker zone, possibly at a headland or where the coast changes direction.

Question 49

Upwelling-

Answer 49

The movement of cold water from deep in the ocean towards the surface. The more dense cold water replaces the warmer surface water and creates nutrient-rich cold ocean currents. These currents from part of the pattern of global ocean circulation currents.

Question 50

How is a spring tide produced?

Answer 50

When the earth, moon and sun are in a straight line, the tide-raising force is the strongest. This produces the highest monthly tidal range, or SPRING TIDE.

Question 51

How is a neap tide produced?

Answer 51

Twice a month, the Moon and Sun are positioned at 90 degrees to each other in relation the the earth. At this time the high and low tides are between 10 to 30 percent lower than the average.

Question 52

Tidal range-

Answer 52

The difference in height of the sea water at high and low tide, This is not fixed due to the tide cycles. Tidal ranger determine the upper and lower limits of erosion and deposition and the amount of time each day that the littoral zone is exposed and open to sub-aerial weathering.

Question 53

Tidal/ storm surges-

Answer 53

Occasions when meteorological conditions give rise to strong winds which can produce much higher water levels than those at high tide.

Question 54

Coastal sediment budget-

Answer 54

The balance between sediment being added to and removed from the coastal system, that system being defined within each individual sediment cell.

Question 55

High energy coast-

Answer 55

A coastline where strong, steady prevailing winds create high energy waves and the rate of erosion is greater than the rete of deposition.

Question 56

Low energy coast-

Answer 56

A coastline where wave energy is low and the rate of deposition often exceeds the rate of erosion of sediment.

Question 57

Sediment cell-

Answer 57

A distinct area of coastline separated from other areas by well-defined boundaries, such as headlands and stretches of deep water.

Question 58

Sources of coastal sediment:

Answer 58

-Streams or rivers flowing into the sea. -Estuaries -Cliff erosion -Offshore sand banks -Material from a biological origin- shells, coral fragments, skeletons.

Question 59

How many sediment cells are along the coastline of England and Wales?

Answer 59

11.

Question 60

What is a sediment cell?

Answer 60

Within sediment cells inputs and outputs are balanced, it is the movement of sediment.

Question 61

What defines sediment cells from the other?

Answer 61

Well-defined boundaries such as headlands and stretches of deep water.

Question 62

What are large sediment cells divided into?

Answer 62

Sub-cells to allow closer study and management.

Question 63

What is the coastal sediment budget?

Answer 63

Defined as the balance between sediment being added to and removed from the coastal system, that system being defined within each individual sediment cell.

Question 64

Marine processes-

Answer 64

Operate upon a coastline and are connected with the sea, such as waves, tides and longshore drift.

Question 65

Sub-aerial processes-

Answer 65

Processes that slowly breakdown the coastline, weaken the underlying rocks and allow sudden movements or erosion to happen more easily. Material is broken down in situ, remaining in or near its original position. Affect the shape of the coastline and include weathering, mass movement and run-off.

Question 66

Hydraulic action-

Answer 66

Refers to the impact on rocks of the sheer force of the water itself. This can exert enormous pressure upon a rock surface, thus weakening it. Such activity is sometimes referred to as wave pounding.

Question 67

Wave quarrying-

Answer 67

A breaking wave traps air as it hits a cliff face. The force of water compresses this air into any gap in the rock face, creating enormous pressure within the fissure or joint. As the water pulls back their is explosive effect to the air under pressure being released. Weakens cliff overtime.

Question 68

Abrasion/corrasion-

Answer 68

The material the sea has picked up also wears away rock faces. Sediment hurled against a cliff line does a lot of damage.

Question 69

Attrition-

Answer 69

Rocks in the sea which carry out abrasion are slowly worn down into smaller and more rounded pieces.

Question 70

Solution (corrosion)-

Answer 70

Dissolving calcium-based rocks.

Question 71

Lithology-

Answer 71

Characteristics of rocks especially resistance to erosion and permeability.

Question 72

Differential erosion-

Answer 72

Variation in the rates at which rocks wear away.

Question 73

Concordant coastline-

Answer 73

A concordant coastline occurs where the bands of differing rock types run parallel to the coast.

Question 74

Discordant coastline-

Answer 74

The rocks run at right angles to the coastline.

Question 75

Traction-

Answer 75

Large stones and boulders are rolled and slid along the seabed and beach by moving seawater. This happens in high energy envionments.

Question 76

Saltation-

Answer 76

Small stones bounce or leapfrog along the seabed and beach. This process is associated with relatively high energy conditions. Small particles may be thrust up and dropped to the seabed again. They dislodge other particles upwards when dropped causing more bouncing movements to take place.

Question 77

Suspension-

Answer 77

Very small particles of sand and silt are carried along by moving water. Such material is not only carried but is also picked up, mainly through the turbulence that exists in the water.

Question 78

Solution-

Answer 78

Dissolved materials are transported within the mass of moving water.

Question 79

Situations when deposition occurs-

Answer 79

-When sand and shingle accumulate faster than they are removed. -As waves slow following breaking. As water pauses at the top of the swash before backwash begins. -When water percolates into the beach material as backwash takes it back down the beach.

Question 80

Aeolian processes-

Answer 80

The entrainment, transport and deposition of sediment by wind.

Question 81

Surface creep-

Answer 81

A process similar to traction, where wind rolls or slides sand grains along the surface.

Question 82

Saltation-

Answer 82

When the wind is strong enough to temporarily lift the grains into the airflow to heights of up to 1 meter for distances of 20 or 30 meters.

Question 83

Sub-aerial weathering-

Answer 83

Processes that slowly break down the coastline, weaken the underlying rocks and allow sudden movements or erosion to happen easily.

Question 84

The three types of weathering-

Answer 84

-Mechanical/physical weathering -Biological weathering -Chemical weathering

Question 85

Mechanical weathering examples-

Answer 85

-Freeze-thaw -Pressure release

Question 86

Biological weathering examples-

Answer 86

-Some marine organisms are able to drill into rock with their shells. -Seaweed attached to rocks can dislodge them in strong waves. -Some organisms produce chemicals promoting solution. -Animals can burrow into cliffs.

Question 87

Chemical weathering examples-

Answer 87

-Solution -Oxidation (disintegrates rocks) -Hydration (expands the rocks) -Hydrolysis (acidic water combines with rock minerals creating clay) -Carbonation (dissolves limestone) -Acid rain (weakens rocks)

Question 88

What factors effects the nature of mass movement on coastlines-

Answer 88

-Level of cohesion within the sediment -Height of the slope and angle -Grain size within the sediment -Temperature and level of saturation.

Question 89

Mass movement: Landslides-

Answer 89

Occur on cliffs made from softer rocks or deposited material, which slip as a result of failure within it when lubricated, usually following heavy rainfall.

Question 90

Mass movement: Rock falls-

Answer 90

These occur from cliffs undercut by the sea, or on sloped affected by mechanical weathering like frost action.

Question 91

Mass movement: Mudfows-

Answer 91

Heavy rain causes large quantities or fine material to flow down hill. Soil is saturated and excess water makes surface layers fluid and flow downhill. Nature of flow is dependent on level of saturation, type of sediment and slope angle.

Question 92

Mass movement: Rotational slip or slumping.

Answer 92

Where softer material overlies much more resistant materials, cliffs are subject to slumping. Excessive lubrication make whole sections of cliffs move downwards with a slide plane that is concave, producing a rotation movement.

Question 93

Mass movement: Soil creep-

Answer 93

This occurs where there is a very slow, almost imperceptible, but continuous movement of individual soil particles downslope. There is no confirmed cause but it is assumed it is the soil moisture working with weathering.

Question 94

Run-off-

Answer 94

When there is more water than the land can absorb, creating small streams or just water that flows over the surface to reach the coastline.

Question 95

Factors effecting coastal landscape-

Answer 95

Coastal geology and lithology Climate Nature of tides and waves.

Question 96

Classifications of coastlines-

Answer 96

-Concordant or discordant, or -A cliffed coast, flat coast or graded shoreline, or -An emergent or submergent coast.

Question 97

Characteristics of coastal landscapes depend on whether it is:

Answer 97

High or low energy coast Dominated by processes of erosion or deposition More or less intensely managed by people.

Question 98

Main inputs of the coast-

Answer 98

-The geology and lithology of the coast -The angle of the dip of the coastline in front of the headland. -The nature of the waves approaching the coast. -The direction and strength of the prevailing wind.

Question 99

Components in systems operating at the coast-

Answer 99

-Wave refraction -Differential rates of erosion of different rocks -Erosion of the headland -Deposition in the bay

Question 100

Outputs in systems operating at the coast-

Answer 100

The characteristic features of the resulting landscape including: -Headland and bays -Erosional features of the headland -Depositional features in the bay

Question 101

How is a wave-cut notch formed?

Answer 101

High and steep waves break at the foot of a cliff with their energy and erosive action is concentrated into a small area of the rock face. With erosion concentrated at its base, the cliff begins to undercut.

Question 102

Geo-

Answer 102

A crack in the cliff line will cut inland, widening the crack to form a narrow, steep sided inlet.

Question 103

Ridges and runnels-

Answer 103

The small size of the sand means when its wet its compact and allows very little peroclation. Most swash returns as backwash, little energy is lost and material is carried down the beach. This leads to the development of ridges and runnels in the sand at the low-water mark. Run parallel to the shoreline and are broken by channels.

Question 104

Storm beach-

Answer 104

Strong swash at spring high tide level creates a storm beach. This is a ridge composed of the biggest boulders thrown by the largest waves above the usual high tide mark.

Question 105

Berms-

Answer 105

A series of ridges below a storm beach, marking the successively lower high tides as the cycle goes from spring to neap. Built by constructive waves.

Question 106

Cusps-

Answer 106

Semi-circular shaped depressions which form when waves break directly on to the beach and swash and backwash are strong. They usually occur at the junction of the shingle and sandy beaches.

Question 107

Swash-aligned beaches-

Answer 107

-Are generally oriented parallel to the incoming wave crests -Experience minimal longshore drift -Can be found on irregular coastlines where longshore drift is impeded and waves hit sections of the coast head-on.

Question 108

Drift-aligned beaches-

Answer 108

-Are generally oriented parallel to the direction of dominant longshore drift. -Can have considerable amounts of sediment transported long distances along them. -Initially develop where a section of coastline is fairly regular or where the predominant wave direction is at an angle to the beach. -Can extend out from the coastline if there is a sudden change in the direction of the coastline, upon reaching an estuary.

Question 109

Characteristics of simple spits-

Answer 109

-Either straight or recurved -Do not have minor spits, or recurved ridges along their landward edge.

Question 110

Characteristics of compound spits-

Answer 110

-May have similar features to simple spits -Have a number or recurved ridges, or minor spits, along their landward side, possibly marking the position where they terminated in the past.

Question 111

How sand dunes develop-

Answer 111

As deposited sand dries out and is blown to their landward side of the spit, where it can accumulate and become stabilised by vegetation as species like marram grass get established.

Question 112

Tombolo-

Answer 112

A spit that joins an island to the mainland is known as a Tombolo.

Question 113

Barrier beach/ barrier island-

Answer 113

An elongated bank of deposited sand or shingle lying parallel to the coastline and not submerged by incoming tides.

Question 114

Important in producing the present coastal landscape features-

Answer 114

-Local tectonic processes -Sea level change- global and local -Climate change- Natural an enhanced by human activity. -Changing ocean currents and wave regimes -Natural disasters or events- storms or tsunamis -Changing sources, types and amounts of sediment -The changing nature of human activity.

Question 115

Sand dunes inputs-

Answer 115

-Plentiful supply of sand -Strong onshore winds -Large tidal range -Obstacle to trap the sand -Vegetation growth to encourage further growth of the dune.

Question 116

Embryo dunes-

Answer 116

First dunes to develop. They are suitable for colonisation by grasses. These are able to grow upwards through wind blown sand.

Question 117

Foredunes-

Answer 117

Initially yellow, because they contain little organic matter.

Question 118

Dune slacks-

Answer 118

These are depressions within the dunes where the water table is on or near the surface and conditions are often damp.

Question 119

Wasting dunes/ Dune heath-

Answer 119

Behind the yellow and grey dunes the supply of sand is gradually cut off giving smaller dune features.

Question 120

Features of mudflats-

Answer 120

-In estuaries or landward side of spits -Low-lying areas of shore, submerged at high tide -Composed of silt and clay -In estuaries, the saltwater brings large amount of fine sediments and meets the river which is also carrying its own fine silts and clays. -In estuaries, when the two flows meet fine particles settle by process of flocculation, forming heavy particles together. -Low tide- water is only left in permanent channels, smooth surface shows tidal action. -Can be extensive covering 10s of squared km.

Question 121

What makes mudflats not necessarily a permanent feature-

Answer 121

-Changes in sea level -Wave action -Changes in discharge levels to the river -Changes to tidal flows

Question 122

Eustatic change-

Answer 122

A global change in sea level resulting from an actual fall or rise in the level of the sea itself.

Question 123

Fjord-

Answer 123

Former glacial valley drowned by rising sea levels.

Question 124

Isostatic change-

Answer 124

Local changes in sea level resulting from the land rising or falling relative to sea level.

Question 125

Raised beaches-

Answer 125

Areas of former wave cut platforms and their beaches which are at a higher level than the present sea level.

Question 126

Ria-

Answer 126

Former river valley drowned by rising sea levels.

Question 127

Tectonic change-

Answer 127

The rise or fall in sea level resulting from tectonic processes.

Question 128

Coastal managements two main aims-

Answer 128

-To provide defence against and mitigate the impacts of flooding. -To proving protection against and mitigate the impacts of coastal erosion.

Question 129

Examples of hard engineering-

Answer 129

-Sea walls -Rock armour (rip-rap) -Gabions -Groynes

Question 130

Disadvantages of hard engineering:

Answer 130

-Structures can be expensive to build and to maintain (sea wall= £7,000/m) -Defence in one place can have serious consequences for another area of the coast. -Structures are sometimes an eyesore, spoiling landscape and disrupting natural habitats.

Question 131

Heysham and Morecambe- Strategy 4: Gabions

Answer 131

Over 500 cages, measuring 2 X 1 X 1m, filled with small limestone boulders were used in various locations to reinforce the coast.

Question 132

Heysham and Morecambe- Strategy 5: Concrete revetment and sea wall.

Answer 132

To the west of Heysham Head, extending to the port and power station, the existing sea wall and large concrete revetments were repaired and left in place.

Question 133

Formby point- Where is ti?

Answer 133

Sefton coast north of Liverpool

Question 134

Formby point- Largest dune area in England, how big?

Answer 134

Over 17km, and ranging from 200m to 4km in width

Question 135

Formby point- Natural causes of erosion:

Answer 135

-Periodic storms combined with high tides

Question 136

Formby point- Human causes of erosion:

Answer 136

-Dredging beach material for glass -Building of hard sea defences in the north and south -Activities developing ports in Liverpool and Preston -Soil dumping in the north -Human access -Off-road vehicles -Afforestation of a conifer plantation.

Question 137

Formby point- If the sea levels rise what role will the sand dunes play?

Answer 137

A vital role in protection against flooding.

Question 138

Formby point- Sefton Coast management scheme, includes:

Answer 138

-Planting used Christmas trees -Fencing off areas to restrict human access -Wooden posts to encourage dune regeneration -Building boardwalks -Signage to direct people around the dunes -Educate local children -Banning off-road vehicles -Controlling commercial extraction of sand

Question 139

Shoreline management plans (SMP) timelines:

Answer 139

-Short term (0-20 years) -Medium term (20-50 years) -Long term (50-100 years)

Question 140

Key features of SMPs:

Answer 140

-Assess risks with evolution of coast. -Provide framework to address risks to all -Address risks sustainably -Policy agenda for coastal defence planning -Promote long-term management policies -Technically sustainable, environmentally acceptable, economically viable. -Ensure plans line up with national legislation -Incorporate a route-map -Provide foundation for future research -Working documents continually reviewed and updated.