Crime Flashcards
(201 cards)
1
Q
Functionalism and crime
A
Accept official stats.
Seek to explain grazing crime levels committed by W/C.
Society causes crime.
Value consensus.
2
Q
Causes of crime (Functionalism)
A
Adequate socialization.
Diversity of lifestyle and values.
Structural causes:anomie
3
Q
Positive functions of crime (Durkheim)
A
Social change
Boundary maintenance
Social cohesion
4
Q
Positive functions of crime:warning device
A
Clinard
Highlights there is something wrong with a social organization.
Cohen
Warns that an institution is not function properly.
5
Q
Positive functions of crime:safety valve
A
Davis
Prostitution helps man’s sexual frustration without threatening nuclear family.
Polsky
Pornography help with sexual desires, prevent alternatives
6
Q
Eva: Positive functions of crime
A
Ignores victim.
Criminals purpose was not to create social solidarity.
How much is too much or too little.
Not always functional.
Marxism, crime is only functional for R/C.
7
Q
Causes of crime (strain theory)
A
Goals and means.
Blocked oppor so can’t achieve goals through legitimate means.
8
Q
Responses to societal strain (Merton)
A
Conformity.
Innovation.
Ritualism.
Retreatism.
Rebellion
9
Q
Eva:strain theory
A
Doesn’t explain group crime.
Failed to consider non utilitarian crime.
Takes official stats at face value.
Marxism, ignores the power of R/C.
Assumes there is value consensus.
To deterministic.
Doesn’t explain white-collar crime.
10
Q
What’s subcultural theory?
A
Emerged our weaknesses of Merton’s anomie theory.
Explains group crime.
Subculture provide alternatives for those faced blocked oppor.
Deviance is the result of people conform to subculture n+v rather than mainstream.
11
Q
Subcultural theory (Cohen)
A
Accept much of what Merton says on the structural origin of crime, W/C youth internalize main stream n+v through socialization but face blocked oppor.
W/C youth face status frustration.
Replace mainstream n+v
Subculture provide alternative means of gain status and strike back at unequal social system.
12
Q
Subcultural theory (Cloward and Ohlin)
A
Accept Cohen’s view on structural origin but he fails to consider the variety of subcultures.
Subculture formation depends on access to illegitimate oppor.
Different neighborhoods provide different oppor.
13
Q
What’s are the 3 types of subculture that Cloward and Ohlin found?
A
Criminal subculture-stable W/C environment, access to adult criminal network.
Conflict subculture-disorganized environment, lack cohesion and access to adult criminal network but value violence
Retreatist subculture-denied access on criminal or conflict subculture.
14
Q
Subcultural theory (Miller)
A
Reject Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin view on structural origin, criticism the idea that subculture emerge as a reaction to anomie.
W/C youth never accept mainstream values, socialized into W/C values
Some over conform to W/C values due to concern of gain status.
15
Q
Eva:subcultural theory
A
+
Generated many subsequent researches.
Willis support Miller.
Morrison support, Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin, underclass face blocked oppor due to position, lead to resentment and revenge.
-
Too readily accept official stats.
South, drug trade is a of conflict and criminal subculture.
Most delinquent not strongly committed to their subculture.
16
Q
What did Bond theory (Hirschi) look at?
A
Why don’t people commit crime.
17
Q
According to Hirschi, what’s the 4 crucial bonds?
A
Attachment-extent we care about others opinions
Commitment-what do we lose if we commit crime.
Involvement-is there time and space for such behavior.
Belief-sense that they should obey to rules of society.
18
Q
Key study:Farmington and West
A
411 W/C males born in 1953, studied until late 30s.
Offenders were more likely to come from poorer, single parent with poor parenting and offender parents. Suggest good primary socialization is essential.
19
Q
Eva:Hirschi
A
Doesn’t explain why bonds can weaken.
Doesn’t explain the variety of crime committed.
Suggest we all have potential to be criminals and should be more closely monitored
20
Q
Marxism and crime
A
Reject official stats.
Crime is structurally caused.
Power and social control.
Qualitative.
Crime is socially constructed.
21
Q
Causes of crime:capitalist society is criminogenic (Haggerty)
A
Crime is natural outcome of capitalism.
Crime is a national response to equality.
Profit and gain are seen as more important than the well-being of others.
22
Q
Causes of crime:changes to labor market theorists
A
Lash and Urry
This organized capitalism, move abroad for cheap labor and exploitation.
Taylor
Marketization and privatization drive globalization and inc crime
23
Q
Causes of crime:selective law enforcement (Chambliss)
A
One law for rich and another for poor.
Crime control focused on poor.
Rich less likely to be prosecuted or treated leniently.
24
Q
Causes of crime:selective law enforcement (Pearce)
A
Crime of powerful are rarely prosecuted even discovered.
Give false impression that most crime is committed by W/C, divert attention away from exploitation to other members of their classes.
25
Causes of crime:law making (Chambliss)
Not to maintain value consensus but an instrument for R/C.
CJS protect private property and U/C interest.
26
Causes of crime:law making (Box)
Serious crime is ideologically constructed.
Crimes committed by corporations or gov are ignored.
Agencies of social control protect R/C power, criminalize people who oppose.
Laws used to control W/C in favor of capitalism.
27
Causes of crime:law making (Snider)
State pass health and safety laws or laws that regulate private business when forced.
Rarely enforce these when passed.
Have an idealogical and manipulative function
28
Neo Marxism and crime
Traditional Marxism is too deterministic, no one is forced to commit a crime.
Purpose of crime is chosen by the offender.
W/C crimes art act of resistance to oppression.
W/C criminals are seen almost as Robin Hood figures.
29
Neo Marxism and crime theorists
Gilroy
Black crime is a form of resistance against racism.
Taylor et al
Looks at both structural and interactionist approach us to causes of crime.
Developed the ‘a fully social theory of deviance’ blending labeling theory and Marxism.
30
What are the 6 dimensions of a fully social theory of deviance?
1.The wider structural origins of deviant acts.
2.The immediate origin of deviant act.
3.The deviant act itself and the meaning it offers.
4.The immediate social reactions to acts of deviance.
5.The wider social reactions to act of deviance.
6.The effect of labeling.
31
Explain Toxteth riots using Taylor et al’s theory
1.long term unemployment among Toxteth residents especially black.
2.racist policing strategies.
3. riots were political protest against economic equality and discrimination.
4.media coverage was biased, police response were confrontational and Thatcher refused to accept allegations of police racism
5.inappropriate regeneration schemes were created.
6. Black remain under police suspicion add more likely to be stopped and searched.
32
Eva:Marxism
+
Bennett found M/C more likely to be cautioned for same offense to W/C.
Sampson, powerless are more likely to be police, concentrated in poor areas due to the beliefs.
-
To readily accept official stats.
Over emphasize property crime.
Over emphasize class inequality.
Not all laws support R/C.
Ignore victims.
Police do try to protect public from victimization.
33
Definition of crime (postmodernism)
Socially constructed.
Based on natural legal definition, not reflecting the diversity.
Current definition is an expression of those with power.
Go beyond narrow legal definitions, based on justice and respect for people’s chosen identities and lifestyles.
34
Postmodernism and crime (Henry and Milovanovic)
Go beyond narrow legal definitions.
Embracing all threats and risks for the pursuit of diversity.
Re-conceptualized not simply as breaking laws but people use power to disrespect by causing some sort of harm.
2 forms of harm:
Harm of reduction – cause a victim to experience immediate loss or injury.
Harm of repression – restrict future human development.
35
Causes of crime (postmodernism)
Society is characterized by a fragmentation of social structure.
Traditional way of gaining roles of values has been replaced by uncertainty and choices.
Individualization.
Crime becomes a one off event. Motivated by an infinite number of individual causes.
36
Tackling crime (postmodernism)
Crime prevention strategies are fragmented.
Emphasize need for private crime prevention rather than reliance on police.
Should be localized by the community based.
Use surveillance techniques to control everyone not just offenders.
37
Labeling and crime
Reject official stats.
Reject structural causal explanations.
Looks at how crime is socially constructed.
In-depth qualitative approach.
Someone in power labels someone with less power as criminal causes crime
38
Labeling and crime:social construction of deviance (Becker)
What counts as crime is based on subjective decisions made by moral entrepreneurs.
Crime can be amplified by labeling cause master status.
SFP and possibly a career.
Criminals join subcultures to justify ad support their activities when accept their labels.
Crime is socially constructed, varies over time and culture.
39
Labeling and crime:social construction of deviance (Platt and Lembert)
Platt
Idea of juvenile delinquency was created due to campaign by U/C Victorian moral entrepreneur.
Lemert
Support Becker on the consequences.
Primary labelling-crime not labeled, few consequences.
Secondary labelling-deviance is labeled and affect individual.
Stigmatization, master status and SFP.
40
Who gets labeled?
Likelihood of prosecution depends on the label attached by agents of social control that’s affected by typifications.
Stats only show activities of the police and prosecutors.
Dark figure of crime.
Labeling depends on various factors.
41
Who gets labeled? (Piliavin and Briar)
Police decisions to arrest youth mainly based on physical cues.
Also gender, class add ethnicity and time and place.
42
Who gets labeled? (Young)
Hippies in Notting Hill labeled for primary deviance, see themselves as outsiders and develop deviant subculture.
Inc police attention and SFP.
43
Who gets labeled? (Cicourel)
Decisions to arrest influenced by stereotypes that’s based on common sense.
Concentrate on certain types and influence law enforcement.
W/C fit typifications, inc control and more arrest confirming their stereotype.
44
Who gets labeled? (Triplett and De Haan)
Triplett
Inc tendency to see young offenders as evil and less tolerant.
Inc in offending.
De Haan
Similar outcome in Holland as a result of inc stigmatization of young offenders.
45
Effect of labeling: Deviant amplification (Becker and Cohen)
Becker
The labeled gain master status and SFP.
Cohen
Deviancy amplification spiral, try to control deviance led to inc due to media amplifying and create moral panics.
Resulting in inc social control and then deviance.
46
Effect of labeling (Braithwaite)
Disintegrative shaming – crime and offender labeled as bad.
Re-integrative shaming, they boost the act but not the actor.
47
Labeling and crime:suicide studies
Durkheim
Discovered causes of suicide as how effectively society integrated individuals and regulated behavior. Interactionist reject the positivist approach and reliance on official stats.
Douglas
Interactionist approach.
Whether death comes to be officially labeled as suicide rather than accident or homicide depends on interactions and negotiations between social actors.
Have to know the meaning behind suicide.
Atkinson
Agrees official stats are merely a record of labels coroners attach.
Focus on taken for granted assumption.
Typical suicide
48
Eva:labeling and crime
+
Goffman, classic study of asylums show how hospitalization of mentally I’ll Linda’s to labelling, master status, SFP, amplification and stigma.
-
Fuller, girls study, labeling too deterministic
Ignores the real victim.
Focus on less serious crimes.
Assumes offenders are passive victims of labeling.
Fail to explain why people commit primary deviant.
Without labeling deviance would not exist.
Too readily dismiss official stats.
49
Left realism and crime
Golden era.
Post modern problems.
Rich poor divide.
50
Causes of crime:relative dep (Young)
Lethal combination is relative dep and individualism.
Encourage pursuit of self interest at expense of others.
Individualism weakens informal control
51
Causes of crime:subculture
Collective solution to relative dep.
Some turn to crime to close development gap, other find religion offers spiritual comfort.
Young, ghettos in USA fully immersed in American dream but blocked oppor so resort to street crime.
52
Causes of crime:marginalization
Lack goals and representation.
Workers have clear ghosts and organize dishes to represent.
But unemployed youth are marginalized, no organization to represent or goals, just resentment and frustration.
53
Victims (Young)
Aetiological crisis, crimes theoris tend to argue inc crime is dues to inc reporting.
Young argue more people are reporting due to more victims.
Disadv groups have greater risks of becoming victim, greater fear of crime and greater effect on lives but less likely to report and police are reluctant to deal with certain crimes.
54
Eva:left realism
Marxism, fail to explain corporate crime.
Interactionist, relies on quantitative data from victim service.
Relative dep doesn’t explain all crime.
Focus on high crime inner city areas, unrepresentative views.
55
Right realism and crime
Criticize other theories for failing to offer practical solutions.
Reject Marxist that crime is due to poverty and inequality, stating elderly tend to be poorer but have very low crime rate.
56
Causes of crime:biological differences (Wilson and Herrnstein and Herrnstein and Murray)
Wilson and Herrnstein
Caused by combo of biological and social factors.
Some are more predisposed to commit crime eg extroversion, low IQ
Herrnstein and Murray
Main cause of crime is low IQ, biologically determined
57
Causes of crime:socialization and underclass (Murray)
Inadequate socialization.
Welfare state inc dependency and matrifocal.
Lack role model
58
Causes of crime:rational choice (Clarke)
Crime is a choice based on rational calculations.
59
Eva:Right realism
Ignores wider structural cause.
Over state offenders rationality, doesn’t explain impulsive crime.
Overemphasis biology.
Young, 0 tolerance, crime already falling in New York.
Ignores call pro crime.
Gives police power to discriminate.
Over emphasize control of disorder rather than tackling the causes.
60
Biological explanations of crime
Lombroso-born criminal, can be identified by physical defects. 
Mutation in MAOA gene that help to control serotonin and dopamine level.
61
Psychological explanations of crime
IQ and school performance, neg interaction cause drop out and join subculture.
High IQ also likely to break law but less likely to get caught.
Temperament-individual characteristics identifiable as early as infancy that constitute habitual mode of emotionally responding to stimuli.
62
Why do women commit less crime?
Under reported
Sex role theory (Parsons)
Lack expressive role model (Cohen)
63
Why do women commit less crime:Control theory (Heidensohn)
Men control women in private and public sphere, fewer oppor.
64
Eva:control theory
There’re female criminals from background with strong male role model.
Fail to consider female on male domestic abuse.
Outdated
65
Why do women commit less crime:class and gender deal (Carlen)
Deal-perceived rewards that prevent offending.
Reject class deal, promise of rewards for legitimate work, but unable to earn a decent living.
Reject gender deal, promise of rewards from conventional family row, but face physical and sexual abuse.
66
Why women commit less crime:chivalry thesis (Pollak)
Men socialized into protecting women so hate to accuse.
CJS is more lenient with women so less likely to end up in official stats. Exaggerate, gender differences.
67
Eva:chivalry thesis
Farrigton and Morris, studied sentencing of theft and women were not sentenced leniently.
Buckle and Farrigton, observational study of shoplifting, 2x as many male shoplifting as women.
Ignores many crimes don’t get reported.
Simply just because their offences are less serious.
Heidensohn, court treat female harshly if deviate from gender norms.
Walklate, CJS is patriarchal.
68
Inc in female offending:liberation thesis (Adler)
Women become liberated.
Inc crimes diversity.
Gender role shifting
69
Eva:liberation thesis
Young research into girl gangs, rare but plenty girls only groups engage in deviant.
Chesney-Lind, most female criminal are W/C, least affected by liberation.
If equality is achieved why are male crime rates so much higher.
70
Why women commit less crime:feminization of poverty
Women more likely, living under poverty line, force into criminal activity
71
Gender and victimization
Victim survey, men more likely to be victims of violent crime.
Female more likely to be victims of domestic abuse and sexual assault. Kelly, women’s greater risk of domestic abuse and sexual assault is the result of patriarchy.
72
Eva: Gender and victimization
Dobash and Dobash, support the view that domestic abuse is a product of patriarchal marriage relationships.
Wilkinson, domestic abuse is the result of stress due to inequality rather than patriarchy
73
Causes of higher male crime rate: hegemonic masculinity (Messerschmidt)
Male achieve at express masculinity through crime.
Non-criminal means are unavailable to create these identities.
74
Causes of higher male crime rate:labeling and oppor
Labeling
Stereotyped, likely to be stop and searched, SFP
Labeled as provider.
Oppor
More oppor to commit blue and white collar crime.
75
Causes of higher male crime rate:postmodernism (Winlow)
Globalization cause de industrialization and unemployment.
Expansion of night time economy, gain money and show masculinity.
76
Ethnicity and stop and search
Black people make up 3% of population but 13% of the prison population.
Asian make up 6.5% of population and 7.7% of prison population.
BCS shows blacks, 8x and Asians 2x more likely to be stopped and searched.
Asians are 3x likely to be stopped and searched under terrorism act.
EM communities have lack trust in police, feel they are over policed and under protected.
77
Causes of ethnicity and crime rates
Police targeting (Philips and Browning)
Locality (Waddington et al)
Institutional racism (McPherson report)
Bond theory (Hirschi)
Subcultural theory (Lee and Young)
Political protest (Gilroy)
Neo Marxism (Hall et al)
Triple quandary (Sewell)
Right realism (Murray)
Black feminism
Educational success
Influence of rap
78
Victimization
Police recorded 54,000 racial incidents in Eng and Wales, 38,000 racially aggravated offences.
CSEW estimate 89,000
79
Reasons for victimization
Relative dep downwards.
Inferior, easier target
80
Effect of victimization
Psychological harm
Fear
Lack of faith
81
Responses to victimization
Under protection from police
Situational crime prevention
82
British crime survey
Based on victim survey, self report studies and experiences of crime. Carried out since 1982 every year. Large sample size.
Aim to investigate how often people are victims.
Uses detailed questionnaire.
BCS suggest only 44% of crime is reported.
BCS find overall inc in crime, official stats find dec.
83
Victim survey
Local or national sample.
Ask what crimes they have been victim to.
Uncover non police recorded and patterns of victimization.
1 person over 16 in every 11,000 households.
84
Self-report surveys
Cross-section of population is asked about the crimes they committed. Give data for hidden offenders.
Find out about victimless crimes.
85
Official crime stats
Gained from police and official agency records.
Published every six months by home office.
Collected since 1857.
Good data on the processes of CJS. Estimated each year 40% of crime reported to police is not recorded. 
86
Courses of social construction of crime-police discretion
Police use own judgment when dealing with crime:
Seriousness
Social status
Classifying crimes
Discretion
Promotion and relationships at work
87
White collar crime theorists
Timmer and Eitzen
Crimes in suite in contrast to crimes in street.
Crimes of the powerful.
Sutherland
Committed by M/C who abuse work positions for personal gain at expense of employers, gov or clients.
88
What’s occupational crime?
Committed by employee for their personal gain that’s against organization.
89
What’s corporate crime?
Committed by employee for their organization to pursue higher goals.
90
Types of corporate crime
Financial crime
Crime against consumers
Crimes against employees
Crimes against environment
State corporate crime
91
Why do corporate crimes go unnoticed?
Not in public interest and hard to detect.
No direct victim.
Media give limited coverage.
Hard to investigate.
Even if it detected, but often not prosecuted and dealt with.
Offenders have a better chance of being found not guilty.
92
Causes of white collar crime
Strain theory–want more.
Control theory-socialized into business culture.
Differentiation association-crime is a behavior learned from others in social context.
Labeling theory-more likely to labeling as often similar to normal business practices.
93
Class and crime
W/C make up most prison population.
W/C 10 to commit street crimes.
M/C turn to commit white collar, crimes, corporate, and cyber crimes.
94
Class and crime:edgework(Katz)
People commit crime to get a buzz or adrenaline rush.
95
Class and crime:masculinity (Messerschmidt)
M/C and W/C men likely to take part in crime to show off masculinity
96
Class and crime:differential association (Sutherland)
If we associate ourselves with people who have criminal attitudes we’re more likely to become deviant ourselves.
97
Key agencies in CJS
Police
CPS
Court system
National offender management service
Youth Justice board
98
Key Gov department
Home office – overseas the police, protect the public.
Attorney general – overseas CPS, serious fraud, office, the revenue and customs, prosecutions office, ensure the rule of law is upheld.
Department of Justice-overseas magistrate, crown, appeals court, legal services, commission, and NOMS, responsible for criminal law and sentencing policy.
99
Roles of CJS
Deterrence
Retribution
Public protection
Rehabilitation
100
Prison
Ultimate deterrent, both controlling crime and punishing offenders.
England and Wales have highest imprisonment rate in EU.
65% of former prisoners released in 2004 were reconvicted within two years of being released and 75% for young male.
101
Era of mass incarceration (Garland)
USA is in this era, operates as a punitive state that seek to control crime and punish offenders.
Rapid inc in prison population .
Since 1970s, tough on crime policies led to rising numbers in prison.
102
Trancarceration
Individuals become locked into a cycle of control, shifting between different agencies during their lives.
Caused by blurred boundaries between CJS and welfare agencies.
103
What are the alternatives to prison?
Curfew
Community service orders
Treatment orders
Electronic tagging
ASBO
104
What’s restorative justice?
Bring offender and victim or victim families together to discuss the offense 
105
5 purposes of punishment (Newburn)
Deterrence – harsh punishments to deter people.
Rehabilitation – reformed with appropriate supervision and treatment.
Reparation – make amends for their offenses.
Retribution–an eye for an eye
Incapacitation-remove offenders capacity to offend again.
106
Functionalism and punishment
CJS is a vital institution in society, works with other institutions to ensure social solidarity
107
Functionalism and punishment (Durkheim)
2 types justice to uphold solidarity:
Retributive justice – solidarity between individuals is based on similarity to when another.
Restitutive justice aim to restore things to how they were before the offense, solidarity is based on the resulting into dependence between individuals.
108
Marxism and punishment
CJS is a repressive state operators.
R/C use punishment to exploit and control W/C
109
Marxism and punishment theorist
Rusche and Kirchheimer
Punishment depends on economic base.
Melossi and Pavarini
Imprisonment reflect the relations of production, you serve time just as you were paid for it.
110
Feminism and punishment
CJS is a tool of patriarchy to maintain their power.
Most CJS members are male and women face double victimization, and double deviancy.
111
Weberianism and punishment
Only the state has power to punish offenders.
Legal rational authority means punishment is based on impersonal rules and regulations set out by a vast bureaucracy.
112
Routine activity theory
Suitable target
No capable guardian
Potential offender present
113
Right realism:situational crime prevention (Clarke)
Reduce crime by altering immediate environment of crimes, inc risk of committing eg target hardening.
114
Eva:situational crime prevention
Displacement
Chaiken et al found a crackdown on Subway robberies in New York merely displaced them to the street above.
115
What are the forms of displacement?
Spatial – moving elsewhere to commit
Temporal– committing a different time.
Target – a different victim.
Tactical – using a different method.
Functional – committing a different type of crime.
116
Right realism: environmental crime prevention (Wilson and Kelling)
Broken window theory, leaving broken windows unrepaired shows that nobody cares.
Twofold strategy, environmental improvement and zero tolerance strategy.
117
Eva:environmental crime prevention
Failed to consider wider social causes of crime.
Doesn’t acknowledge some people maybe targeted unfairly by police.
Assume offenders act rationally.
Geographically limited and only prevents one area.
Displacement of crime
118
Right realism: inc social control
Strong social bonds, integrate people communities and encourage to choose conformity over crime.
Strengthening social institutions and constrain people through pressure.
Policies include parenting order, ASBOs and neighborhood watch.
119
Left realism: tackling crime (Kinsey, Lea and Young)
Police spent too little time actually investigating crime, losing public support.
Rely on military policing .
Must be made accountable to local authorities and deal with local concerns.
Multi agency approaches needed.
120
Left realism: tackling structural causes
Deal with equality of opportunity, discrimination, provide jobs and improve housing.
Need to become more tolerant and diversity and stop labeling 
121
Left realism and crime
Focus on organization of society and inequality.
Need to tackle material and cultural dep, risk factors for course crime.
122
Left realism:social and a community crime prevention
Tackle in the city areas and council estates.
Emphasize on potential offenders and social context.
Aim to remove conditions that dispose individuals to crime.
Long-term strategies, EG Perry preschool project
123
What’s Perry preschool project?
2 year intellectual enrichment program for disadv black children aged 3 to 4.
By age 40 they had fewer lifetime arrest for crime and more had graduated from high school and had a job than matched control group.
For every dollar spent on program, 17 were saved on welfare, prison and other cost.
124
Eva: social and community crime prevention
Soft on crime and focused too much on social causes.
Downplay the role of offender.
Majority in dep area don’t turn to crime.
Deflect attention away from more practical crime prevention measures .
125
Disciplinary power (Foucault)
Before 19th century, sovereign power.
After disciplinary power, controls body and mind.
126
What’s Panopticon?
Bentham influenced present design in early 1800s.
A system where is small number of cards control hundreds of criminals.
Prisoners are always visible from the guard tower, but they can’t see the guards in the tower.
Self surveillance
127
Eva:Foucault
Exaggerate the extent of control.
Cameras are not always effective.
Male gaze
128
Synoptic surveillance (Mathiesen)
Both top down and bottom up surveillance.
Widespread camera ownership, control the controller.
129
Liquid surveillance (Bauman and Lyon)
Constantly being monitored so increasing the conscious.
Erosion of civil liberties.
Convinced that someone is monitoring everything we do.
130
Supporting arguments: liquid surveillance
Haggerty and Ericson, surveillance tech involve manipulation of virtual objects in cyberspace rather than physical.
131
Actuarial justice (Feely and Simon)
Focus on group.
Prevent crime rather than rehabilitating offenders.
Calculation of risk, likelihood of certain groups commit certain crime.
132
Surveillance Society (Lyon)
Happens since birth, becomes so routine that we no longer notice. Transparent and lack privacy.
133
Impact of surveillance: labeling theorists
Norris and Armstrong
Massive, disproportionate targeting of young black males due to typifications.
Ditton et al
CCTV make discriminatory judgment about potential suspects
134
Impact of surveillance:fam (Henderson et al)
Mothers in a paranoid state about whether they were giving their new born right diet, amount of sleep, etc.
Fear of being criticized by peers, self surveillance
135
Impact of surveillance: erosion of civil liberties (Newburn and Haymen)
Assessed a custody suite off a police station for 18 months.
Although CCTV is an intrusion provide evidence for defense lawyers in cases of alleged police brutality.
136
Surveillance strength
Foucault’s Idea used by feminist to examine modern motherhood.
Bowcott and Ball studied how gov increasing surveys our social media post and text, reached similar conclusions to Bauman and Lyon.
Newburn and Haymen surveillance, ensures lawyers access to CCTV footage.
Led to arrest of many would be terrorist before they commit their plan.
137
Weaknesses
Henderson et al, patriarchal ideology connected to surveillance.
Evidence show surveillance is ineffective crime prevention.
Left realist, millions are wasted on surveillance, should be used to tackle relative dep.
Can lead to SFP.
138
Surveillance helps social control
Helps reduce fear of crime.
Helps to fight against terrorism.
139
Surveillance doesn’t help social control
Allow R/C to shape W/C behavior.
Limited evidence that it changes behavior.
Norris, CCT reduce crime in car parks, but not other sorts of crime.
Loveday and Gill, burglars, shoplifters and fraudsters were not put off by CCTV.
Erosion of civil liberty.
140
Definition of victim
UN those who suffered harm through act or omissions that violate laws.
Christie, victim is socially constructed.
141
Patterns of victim: class
Poorest groups likely to be victimized.
Highest crime rate in high unemployment and dep areas.
Newburn and Rock, conducted a survey of 300 homeless, found they were 12x more likely to have experience violence.
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Patterns of victim:gender
About 70% off homicide victims are male
143
Patterns of victim:ethnicity
Likely to be victims of crime in general.
Feel under protected and over controlled.
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Patterns of victim:age
Younger people more likely to be victims.
Most are risk of murder are children under 1.
Old are likely to be victims of abuse in care homes.
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Repeat victimization
BCS, around 60% of population have not been victims in a given year, mere 4% of the population are victims of 44% of our crimes in our period.
146
Impact of victimization
Crime can have serious physical and emotional impact on victims.
Also affect indirect victims.
Hate crimes can create waves of harm.
Fear of victimization.
May experience further victimization
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Critical victimology
Based on conflict theories two elements:
Structural factors – place some powerless groups at greater risk of victimization.
State’s power to apply or deny the labor victim – victim is socially constructed.
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Hierarchy of victimization (Tombs and Whyte)
Powerless likely to be victims, but less likely to have their victimization acknowledge the by state.
149
Eva: critical victimology
Disregard the role victims play in praying victimization on themselves through own choices or own offending.
150
Globalization and crime (Held et al)
Growing interconnectedness of crime across national borders.
Cultural barriers are broken.
Isolated crimes are now a global issue.
151
Globalization and crime (Giddens)
Intensification of view, events miles away can have a direct impact on local happenings.
152
Globalization and crime (McGrew)
Events and decisions in one part of the world have sig consequences for people in other parts of the globe
153
What is globalization caused by?
Spread of new info and communication tech.
Influence of global mass media.
Cheap air travel.
The regulation of a financial.
Ease of movement.
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Castells
Global criminal economy worth over 1 trillion per annum including:
Arms trafficking
People smuggling
Sex tourism
Organ trafficking
Cyber crimes
Green crimes
Terrorism
Smuggling goods
Trafficking cultural artifact
Trafficking endangered species
Drug trade
Money laundering
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Globalization and crime pos
Focuses on newest, most dramatic and serious crimes.
More connectedness between law enforcement agencies around the world.
156
Neg
Difficult to investigate due to the secretive and global nature.
Dependency on secondary resources.
Primary research can be dangerous.
Easily exaggerated in terms of impact.
157
New types of crime
Drug trade–worth over $300b per year, often cultivated in 3rd world countries.
Human trafficking–estimated over 2000 organs per year are trafficked from condemned or executed criminals, estimated over 0.5m people are trafficked to western European annually.
Financial crimes–easier or to haven countries where national laws don’t allow law enforcement access to accounts.
Transnational organized crime-organized crime network based on economic links, McMafia, developed from deregulation of global markets and fall of Soviet union.
Cyber crime–transnational, beginning to be tackled more effectively.
Terrorism–easier due to technological and communication advancement.
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Impact of globalization on crime
Individualism–individualism and consumer culture, people take part in criminal activity to achieve consumer lifestyle.
Oppor-new types of crime and new way to commit crime.
Problems with policing–transnational crimes require corporations of different law enforcement agencies work together and what’s illegal in one country may not be in another.
Left realist–materialistic culture encourage people to turn to crime, globalization create criminal oppor for elite to avoid taxation.
More inequality–business owners benefit from transnational corporations, W/C struggle due to job insecurity, and deindustrialization. Disorganized capitalism–deregulation and fewer state controls over business and finance
Risk–manufactured fear, risk consciousness.
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Impact of globalization on organized crime (Hobbs and Dunningham)
1990s ethnographic study looks at how organized the crime expanded due to globalization.
160
Changes to society
New political and economic systems made conditions possible for new criminal organization to emerge.
Stability allowed low risk, lucrative criminal gangs emerge.
161
Corporate crime in official stats
Under represented in official crime stats because:
Powerful people
Hard to detect
Lack prosecution
162
Types of corporate crime
Paperwork and noncompliance
Environmental or green crimes
Manufacturing offenses
Labor law violation
And fair trade practices
Financial offenses
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Explaining corporate and occupational crime: differential association and subcultural theory
Sutherland
Business culture justifies criminal activity.
Aubert
Support Sutherland in his study of rationing procedures during WW2.
Braithwaite
Studied pharmaceutical industries, bribery, was seen as a normal part.
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Explaining corporate and occupational crime:Marxism
Swartz
Capitalism values legitimize business crime.
Box
Powerful promote the idea that corporate crime is minor.
Pearce
Few prosecutions as it would create crisis of legitimacy for R/C
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Explaining corporate and occupational crime:Strain theory
Box
Illegitimate means to achieve goals.
Braithwaite
Studied pharmaceutical industry, scientist willing to fabricate results so companies take their product.
Nelkin
Criticize this theory as it fails to explain why only some choose illegal means.
166
Explaining corporate and occupational crime:labeling theory
Nelken
Studied English family practitioner panels who deals with GP ‘s who defraud NHS by over claiming, concluded everything possible was done to ensure impression of criminal activity was avoided.
167
Explaining corporate and occupational crime: edgework and emotion based approaches
Portnoy
Rich and powerful commit coral crime due to excitement and thrills.
Punch
High finance world allow corporate crime offenders to justify their involvement.
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States crime definition
State/gov put people’s live in danger.
Domestic law
Chambliss-act defined below as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of jobs as representatives of the state.
International law
Rothe and Mullins-State crime is an action by or on behalf of a state that violates international or domestic law.
169
Types of state crime
McLaughlin identified 4 categories:
Political crime
Crime by security and police forces
Economic crime
Social and cultural crime
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Courses of state crime: integrated theory
Green and Ward
State crime arises from similar circumstances to other crimes, three integrating factors: motivation, oppor and lack of control.
171
Courses of state crime:modernity (Bauman)
Certain features of modern society made state crime possible:
Division of labor-each is responsible for one task.
Bureaucratization-Normalization by making a repetitive and routine.
Instrumental rationality-Rational and efficient method to achieve a goal.
Science and tech-These knowledge can justify the means of motive.
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Courses of state crime: social conditions
Kelman and Hamilton identified 3 features produce crime of obedience:
Authorization–approved by those empower.
Routinization–can be performing a detached manner.
Dehumanization–victims are portrayed as subhuman.
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Justification technique for crime: spiral of denial (Cohen)
State use different methods to legitimize their actions:
It didn’t happen
If it did happen then it was something else
Even if it is what you say it is, it is justified
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Justification technique for crime:neutralization (Sykes and Matza)
Applies to all types of crime
Denial of the victim
Denial of the injury
Denial of responsibility
Condemning the condemners
Appeal to higher loyalty
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Human right definition
Natural rights-people have simply by virtue of existing.
Civil right-right to vote, to privacy, to a fair trial and to education
176
Schwendinger and Michalowski
Schwendinger
Crime should be defined as violation of basic human rights.
Michalowski
State crime include illegal acts but also legally permissible acts whose consequences are similar to those of illegal acts that they cause.
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What’s transgressive?
Should look at the wider definition of crime
178
What’s anthropocentric?
Harm to environment from the perspective of humanity
179
What’s ecocentric?
Harm to any aspect of the environment regardless of whether or not there’s any specific human cost
180
Green crime definition:traditional criminology (Situ and Emmons)
An unauthorized act or omission that violates the law of a state or nation
181
Green crime definition:green criminology (White)
Any action that harms physical environment or human, nonhuman creatures even no law has been broken.
182
What’s primary and secondary crime (South)
Primary-harms environment.
Secondary-harms environment and breaks law
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Eva:green criminology
+
Develops a global view on environmental harm.
-
By focusing on the harm rather than crime is subjective.
184
Green crime and globalization
Threats to ecosystem or global. Illegal industrial pollution in one country can lead to acid rain in another.
The Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine (1986) spread Radioactive waste over 1000 of miles.
185
Green crimes victims
Tend to be people from developing world due to inability to move
186
Green crime offender (Wolf)
Individuals-no immediate impact but will add up.
Businesses-waste dumping and health and safety breaches.
Gov-military are biggest institutional polluter through unexplored bomb and lasting effects of toxic chemicals.
Organized crime-often in collusion with gov and industry
187
Eva:green crime
Difficult to study green crime as there is no agreed it definition.
Difficult to assess the impact as it can be a long-term.
Much of the research is based on case studies.
Green crime can be accompanied by greater value judgments due to lack of a greed definition.
188
What are the new forms of cyber crime that Macionis and Plummer highlight?
Internet-based fraud.
Child pornography.
Identity theft.
Terrorism.
Organized crime rings.
Money laundering. Hacking.
Online bullying and harassment.
Phishing
189
What are the 4 categories of cyber crime Wall identified?
Cyber deception and theft
Cyber pornography
Cyber trespass
Cyber violence
190
Issues with cyber crime
Difficult to police due to large scale interconnectedness of Internet.
IP addresses can be used in multiple countries to hide identities.
Technology in these crimes is constantly developing and adapting to the policing methods.
Due to constant development of crimes these criminals are able to find loopholes in law.
191
Factual media representation of crime
Criminals
Under class, EM, young, men
Victims
Missing white woman syndrome and selective reporting
Police
Corrupt, brutality, racist and incompetent
192
Fictional media representation of crime
Criminals
Super villain, stupid, psychopath and rational
Victims
Female victims is helpless, may or victims is vigilant and EM
Police
Super intelligent, bumbling idiots and always get the bad guy
193
Distortion of crime on media (Dutton and Duffy)
46% of media reports were on violent or sexual crimes which make up only 3% of crimes recorded by police
194
Distortion of crime on media (Felson)
Exaggerate the risks of victimization.
Age and dramatic fallacy.
Exaggerates police success
195
Distortion of crime on media (Surette and Postman)
Surette
Media shows direct opposite of official stats
Postman
Media coverage of crime is infotainment 
196
Theory view of media on crimes
Marxist
Reflect R/C ideology
Feminism
Reinforces stereotypes and oppression of women.
Pluralists
Reflect the public.
Postmodernism
No true understanding of crime but only the representation they experienced through media
197
Media causing crime
Imitation
Desensitization
Arousal
Teaching
Stimulation
By portraying the police as incompetent
Buy glamorizing offending
Labeling
198
Media for overtime
In 1920 and 30s, cinema was blamed for corrupting youth.
1950s, horror comic responsible for moral decline.
1980s, video nasties
Now, rap lyrics and computer games
199
Processes of moral panic
1.media identify a group as folk devil and become demonized.
2.media present the group in a neg and stereotyped way.
3.deviance is sensationalized and exaggerated.
4.moral entrepreneurs condemn the group and its behavior.
5.deviance becomes amplified.
200
Deviance amplification spiral
1.media portray it as a problem getting out of hands.
2.inc control response from police.
3.marginalization and stigmatization.
4.defined their subcultural style.
5.led to more youth adopting the style.
6.media transformed loose knit grouping to tight knit gangs by emphasize their differences.
7.SFP
8.many have not direct experience so rely heavily on media.
201
Reasons for Marlo panic
Social change
Changes to post war British society
Anomie
Neo Marxism, media sensationalize and divert attention away 
