Crime and Deviance

Question 1

What did Durkheim say about crime

Answer 1

He said it is healthy for society as it maintains value consensus

Question 2

What are the three functions of crime for functionalists

Answer 2

1) Social Integration
2) Social Regulation
3) Social Change

Question 3

What is social integration

Answer 3

People coming together to unify against crime

Question 4

What is social regulation

Answer 4

Keeping society in order and maintaining social cohesion by enforcing the law with punishment

Question 5

What is social change as a function of crime

Answer 5

Society can decide what is or isn’t allowed as they can choose when laws don’t line up with the collective sentiment of the majority

Question 6

Which theory did Merton come up with

Answer 6

Strain theory

Question 7

What is the American dream

Answer 7

Achieving the cultural goals of society through material success and hard work

Question 8

What happens when people cant achieve the American dream

Answer 8

They feel strain (strain theory)

Question 9

What are the 5 responses outlined by Merton that people do when they cant achieve the American dream

Answer 9

1) Conformist
2) Rebels
3) Innovators
4) Ritualists
5) Retreatists

Question 10

What is conformist

Answer 10

When people still see hard work as the primary key to material success

Question 11

What is a rebel

Answer 11

Someone who creates new goals instead of achieving material success

Question 12

What is an innovator

Answer 12

Someone who creates new ways to achieve success. Through crime for example

Question 13

What is a ritualist

Answer 13

A person who gives up on achieving society’s approved goals but still operate according to society’s approved means. They accept they’ll never progress so they stay in their position

Question 14

What is a retreatist

Answer 14

Someone who gives up on the goals of society due to lack of self - belief. The goals are no longer relevant to them

Question 15

Marxist perspective on crime and deviance

Answer 15

• Believe capitalism is criminogenic: it causes crime. Because working class are exploited and they face inequality, they resort to crime.
• David Gordon: argues crime is a reasonable and rational response to inequality
• Chambliss: Says the bourgeoisie are the law makers and therefore make them in favour of themselves
• White and blue collar crimes: white collar crimes aren’t seen as typical crimes as they cause less physical harm and are only committed by the bourgeoisie. For these crimes, people aren’t generally prosecuted.
• Snider: governments are reluctant to pass laws which may limit productivity and profit of business.

Question 16

Evaluations for Marxist perspectives on crime and deviance

Answer 16

• David Gordon assumes that all those exploited by capitalism will turn to crime
• If capitalism is the root cause of crime, then communist states shouldn’t see any crime, yet the Soviet Union and Cuba have/had crime
• Marxists say the bourgeoisie exploit the working class, meaning surely they would be the victims of most working class crime. Yet it’s mostly the working class who are victims of crime
• Ignores all other causes of crime apart from inequality
• Marxists only focus on class inequalities that cause crime, not gender or ethnicity.

Question 17

Functionalist perspective on crime and deviance

Answer 17

• Durkheim claims that crime is healthy for society because it can maintain value consensus.
• He says there are 3 functions that crime performs: 1) Social integration - it strengthens social bonds among the people reacting or victimised by the criminals or deviant. 2) Social regulation - it clarifies norms and increases conformity by enforcing the law through punishment. 3) Social change - it can help lead to positive social change and also challenge people’s present views.
• Merton’s strain theory: Focussed on why people commit crime. Talked about the ‘American dream’, which highlights how everyone can achieve the cultural goals of material success if they work hard. When individuals can’t achieve this success they will feel ‘strain’.

Question 18

Status frustration - Cohen

Answer 18

When working class boys are unable to achieve in schools via legitimate means, they suffer status frustration and form a delinquent subculture with alternative views, goals and means of achieving status, whilst rejecting the goals of the education system.
EVALUATION: assumes that all working class boys give up on achieving status and mainstream goals via legitimate means.

Question 19

Cloward and Ohlin - different subcultures

Answer 19

• Criminal subcultures: Exist in inner-city areas. it’s easy for frustrated youths to learn criminal skills. They have criminal role models to look up to and learn from.
• Conflict subcultures: Difficult for criminal subcultures to develop as different gangs battle for overall control.
• Retreatist subcultures: Youths who don’t succeed as criminals fail in professional and violent crime so they turn to illegal drug use instead.

Question 20

Marxists - crime in society

Answer 20

• Box: the law is written by the bourgeoisie and therefore only reflects their interests.
• Chambliss: Criminal justice system focusses far more on the proletariat then bourgeoisie in order to control their actions. The bourgeoisie’s crimes are ignored, which is known as selective law enforcement.
• False class consciousness: The bourgeoisie will pass laws that look as if they are helping the proletariat such as minimum wages and health and safety regulations in the workplace. However, Pearce claims that these laws are rarely enforced and benefit the ruling class because a healthy and happy workforce is more productive and obediant.

Question 21

Reasons why women commit less crime than men

Answer 21

• The chivalry thesis
• Sex role theory
• Patriarchal control theory
• Masculinity theory

Question 22

Reasons why women are committing more crime

Answer 22

• The liberation thesis

Question 23

The chivalry thesis - Pollack

Answer 23

The criminal justice system is dominated by men who are socialised to be chivalrous towards women.
This means that when men are faced with a female offender, they will likely treat the woman more leniently and not make an arrest and let the woman go.

Question 24

Sex role theory - Parsons

Answer 24

Women are less likely to be criminals because of their genetic characteristics. This is caused by the socialisation they received as children. Boys have less access to adult role models in the home so they are more likely to turn to all male gangs for masculine identity.

Question 25

Patriarchal control theory - Heidensohn

Answer 25

Women are more likely to conform to norms and values so they’re restricted when it comes to criminal/deviant behaviour. Also, because women are controlled by men, they have less opportunities to commit crime.

Question 26

Masculinity theory - Messerschmidt

Answer 26

Suggests why men commit more crime than women, creating the difference in rates of criminal activity between women and men.
Men constantly work at developing their masculinity, which is deemed to be an achievement in the eyes of other men. Messerschmidt claims masculinity is characterised by 1) being payed for employment, 2) The subordination of women, 3) heterosexuality, 4) being sexually active.
Men commit crime in order to show their masculinity and prove that they are men.

Question 27

The liberation thesis - why there is increased female crime - Adler

Answer 27

As women become more liberated from patriarchal control, there will be more opportunity for women to commit crime. As women become more prevalent in society, like in employment and taking on male roles, they’ll have more opportunity to commit crime, like white collar crime.

Question 28

Reasons why ethnicity affects crime statistics

Answer 28

• Institutional racism: McPherson report
• Canteen culture
• Stop and search
• Typifications
• Police targeting

Question 29

Institutional racism: McPherson report

Answer 29

McPherson called the actions of the police during the Stephen Lawrence murder institutional racism. He accused the police of being incompetent for not following up on important leads. It also highlighted the racist policies within the police force.

Question 30

Canteen culture - Holdaway

Answer 30

Holdaway claimed that many officers held prejudicial thoughts on black ethnic minority groups and told negative stories and shared derogatory jokes when police officers were together, at lunch for example. This reinforced the stereotype that police are institutionally racist.

Question 31

Stop and search - Paul Gilroy and Stuart Hall

Answer 31

They argue, for example, that the imbalance in stop and search and imprisonment rates by ethnicity are explained by differential levels of policing between different ethnic groups. This results in a higher percentage of Black or Asian criminals being convicted than white criminals.

Question 32

Typifications - Cicourel

Answer 32

He believes that labelling is what leads to selective law enforcement and negotiation of justice. When a groups is labelled as deviant or criminal then the police are likely to focus on that group and reinforce the stereotype. He referred to this as typifications.

Question 33

Police targeting - Phillips and Browning and Gilroy

Answer 33

Phillips and Browning - Ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected
Gilroy - ‘Myth of black criminality’ - stereotyping. Police focus on ethnic minorities and therefore they’re more likely to be stopped and searched or arrested compared to the whit majority.

Question 34

Katz

Answer 34

Crime is committed for the buzz and thrill. Different types of crimes give different levels depending on the severity.
Men commit more crime in the postmodern world because traditional means of achieving masculinity are no longer available.

Question 35

Labelling theories on crime and deviance

Answer 35

• Lemert: primary and secondary deviance.
  PRIMARY deviance - a person commits an act that they know is deviant/criminal but no one else knows so there is no label attached to the criminal.
  SECONDARY deviance - The deviant/criminal act is witnessed and a label is attached to the person committing the act.
• Cicourel: typifications - suggests that when a groups is labelled as deviant, police are likely to focus more on that group which reinforces the stereotype.
• Deviance amplification - an attempt to control deviance leads to greater amounts of that deviance. E.g. Stan Cohen’s mods and rockers.
• Master status - This is where an individual is identified by a particular aspect of themselves such as being a criminal and this impacts how they’re treated within society. With criminals this can lead to a deviant or criminal career as their label prevents them from accessing legitimate means of achieving social goals.

Question 36

Evaluations for labelling theories on crime and deviance

Answer 36

• Cicourel - doesn’t explain where the stereotypes come from.
• Sometimes the deviant becomes the victim because of the labelling they receive and so aren’t blamed for their behaviour.
• Labelling theories are deterministic - human action is ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will - it doesn’t take into account that people may simply decide to commit crime.

Question 37

Reasons why globalisation affects crime statistics

Answer 37

Globalisation is increasing the opportunity for crime as well as creating new crimes.

Question 38

Forms of globalised crimes

Answer 38

• Arms trafficking - weapons being sold to terrorist groups
• Smuggling of illegal immigrants - individuals/groups who charge large fees to desperate migrants in order to assist their entry into a new country.
• Drugs trade
• Financial crimes
• Cyber crime
• Terrorism

Question 39

How has globalisation influenced the drugs trade

Answer 39

The global drug trade is now worth over $300 billion per year.
Drugs are often cultivated in third world countries such as Colombia, Peru and Afghanistan which have large impoverished populations so drugs is an attractive trade as it requires little investment but commands high prices, especially in the western worlds.

Question 40

How has globalisation influenced financial crimes

Answer 40

Money laundering has become much easier for example with the relaxing of international banking laws meaning that people are able to move money between offshore accounts much easier or to haven countries where national laws do not allow law enforcement access to accounts.

Question 41

How has globalisation influenced cyber crime

Answer 41

Cyber crime has developed out of the growth in technology and takes on a number of forms including cyber fraud, cyber theft, cyber terrorism and cyber violence. it is a transnational crime as the perpetrator can be in one country whilst committing a crime in another country.

Question 42

How has globalisation influenced terrorism

Answer 42

Technological and communication advancements have made international terrorism easier, as groups are able to communicate with members all over the world and cultivate in-state members through online radicalisation.

Question 43

Left Realist view on crime and deviance

Answer 43

They have a similar view to Marxists - they say inequality is root cause of crime. They think however that a gradual change from capitalism is necessary rather than a complete instant overthrow.

Question 44

Cause of crime according to Left Realists

Answer 44

RELATIVE DEPRIVATION: As living standards rise, people are becoming more aware of their economic deficit and so show resentment towards those who are wealthier. They turn to crime to achieve what they feel they are entitled to.
MARGINALISATION: Marginalised groups feel left out by society and therefore show frustration and resentment. As a result, they turn to crime to better their situation. They also lack the goals to represent their interests.
SUBCULTURES: Deviant subcultures form as a collective response to relative deprivation. They may also form due to a groups inability to achieve society’s goals through legitimate means. These subcultures want the same goals and values as the rest of society such as consumerism and materialism.

Question 45

Right Realist view on crime and deviance

Answer 45

They are less concerned with the causes of crime, but rather finding solutions to combat crime. However, they still suggest reasons for crime.

Question 46

Causes of crime according to Right Realists

Answer 46

BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES: Wilson and Herrnstein - they believe that crime is caused by a combination of biological and social factors. They believe that some people are more predisposed to crime through personality traits such as aggressiveness, extroversion and risk taking along with low impulse control. This mixed with poor socialisation or lack of role models leads to criminal behaviour.
SOCIALISATION & THE UNDERCLASS: Charles Murray - believes that crime rates are increasing due to the growing underclass of people who are dependent upon the welfare state. He believes that this underclass fails to adequately socialise their children. Murray suggested that the ‘glorious revolution’ in the 1960’s led to the increase in lone parent families which are inadequate agents of socialisation and teaches children to not take responsibility for themselves. Murray referred to the welfare state as the ‘nanny state’.
RATIONAL CHOICE: Individuals have free will and the power of reason, therefore suggesting that criminals have taken the choice to commit a crime. It’s argued that if the perceived cost of committing the crime is outweighed by the benefit, people will be more likely to offend. Right Realists believe that the current costs of crime are too low which is why the crime rate has increased.

Question 47

Left Realist view on tackling crime

Answer 47

Left Realists believe that tackling crime requires tackling the social problems which lead to crime, in particular, the causes of inequality and deprivation. Policies and strategies should focus on making better relationships between the public and the police.

Question 48

Right Realist view on tackling crime

Answer 48

They say tackling the causes of crime is too difficult to change, so instead we should look at making criminal behaviour less attractive to people. This includes target hardening and Wilson and Kelling’s zero tolerance theory. Target hardening focusses on making it harder for crimes to be committed in the first place. Zero tolerance policies means all criminal behaviour must be dealt with immediately.

Question 49

Evaluations of Left Realist views on crime

Answer 49

• They accept the governments definition of crime as being street crime committed by the working class, and don’t recognise whit collar crimes.
• Relative deprivation cannot explain all crime as not all those who experience it go on to commit crime.
• They focus on high crime inner city areas which gives an unrepresentative view of crime and makes it appear a greater problem than it is.

Question 50

Evaluations of Right Realist views on crime

Answer 50

• Ignores wider structural causes of crime
• Overstates rationality of the criminals - this doesn’t explain violent or impulsive crimes
• Also ignores corporate and white collar crimes

Question 51

What is situational crime prevention

Answer 51

A pre-emptive approach which aims to make it harder to commit crime in the first place by ‘designing’ out crime.

Question 52

Strategies of situational crime prevention

Answer 52

• Bars and bolts on windows
• Alarm systems
• Park benches that prevent homeless sleepers
• More CCTV
• More police out in public
• Hostile architecture

Question 53

What is environmental crime prevention

Answer 53

Improving the local area and dealing with low level criminal activity such as vandalism, graffiti and loitering.

Question 54

Strategies of environmental crime prevention

Answer 54

• Zero - tolerance policing - dealing with small petty crimes immediately will prevent the movement into more serious crimes.
• Wilson & Kelling broken window theory - if windows are broken in a property, then they need to be fixed immediately in order to maintain the expected standards. By leaving the windows broken, it sends out a message that no one cares about the community so crime will increase in these areas.

Question 55

What is social and community crime prevention

Answer 55

A left realist approach which suggests that by dealing with the social inequalities that lead to crime, it will reduce the crime rate e.g. improving education and employment opportunities.

Question 56

Strategies of social and community crime prevention

Answer 56

Youth groups and community centres will help to create a sense of community.
Parenting groups to help with socialisation.
Increasing community police officers to improve community relations between the police and the public which can help crimes to be solved.

Question 57

Functionalist view on punishment

Answer 57

Society can only exist if there is a shared system of values that tie a society together morally. Laws are a representation of this collective conscious. Durkheim suggests that retribution gives people an outlet for anger and reaffirms collective conciousness.

Question 58

Marxist view on punishment

Answer 58

The role of punishment is to benefit capitalism through the imprisonment of the working class.
The criminal justice system uses law enforcement to protect the interests of the ruling class and therefore acts as a repressive state apparatus (Althusser) by making the proletariat conform due to the fear of punishment.

Question 59

Garland’s view on punishment

Answer 59

Says that the CJS did not just try and catch and punish offenders, but also tried to rehabilitate them, so that they could be reintegrated into society.

Question 60

What is positivist victimology

Answer 60

Positivist victimology states that there are characteristics which make someone more likely to be a victim.
This approach aims to identify people who have contributed to their own victimisation

Question 61

Hans von Hentig on victimology

Answer 61

Discusses the idea of victim proneness
He says there are 13 characteristics which make someone more likely to be a victim of crime.
They are: young, female, old, immigrants, depressed, mental illness, acquisitive people, minorities, lonesome, heartbroken, tormentor, the blocked, the fighter.

Question 62

Two reasons why situational crime prevention strategies may not be affective at reducing crime

Answer 62

• Displacement theory - Whilst it may reduce crime in one area, the crime can simply move to another area, therefore being ineffective at reducing crime.
• Doesn’t deal with corporate or white collar crime. White collar crime doesn’t occur in public or in physical locations, so therefore situation crime strategies won’t reduce whit collar crimes.