Criminal Flashcards

Question

What is an Alternative Theory to Labelling + Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as an explanation of Criminal/ASB?

Answer 1

Labelling + SFP fails to take biological factors. Those committing crime/ASB could be a result of them having the (MAOA) 'warrior gene' or high levels of testosterone in the body that could result in criminal/ ASB

Answer 2

1. Attention (the behaviour is observed and the role model is given attention) 2. Retention (the behaviour is retained) 3. Reproduction (the behaviour is reproduced) 4. Motivation (there must be motivation to do the behaviour)

Answer 3

Uses principles of vicarious reinforcement You observe others being rewarded or punished for behaviour (e.g. criminal behaviour leads to punishment, making less people want to commit crime)

Answer 4

Positive Reinforcement: involves receiving something good for an action, reinforcing it to be repeated. (e.g. robbery leads to the addition of more things you want) Negative Reinforcement: when a burden/something bad is removed when a certain behaviour is repeated (e.g. robbery leads to the reduction in financial problems)

Answer 5

1. Vicarious Consequences- if the observer views the crime as victimless (e.g. shoplifting); the amount of punishment/reward received 2. External Motivation- when behaviour's been copied, operant conditioning occurs to determine whether they'll repeat that behaviour 3. Self Reinforcement - how much it satisfies the person

Answer 6

They investigated modelling + SLT in their Bobo Doll Experiment Behaviour was imitated more by same sex role models Children were more likely to imitate the aggressive role models Boys were more easily influenced by aggressive behaviour

Answer 7

Observational learning can only take place where someone identifies with another person in the same way (role model) They're likely to be of the same sex, roughly the same age, share similar interests and are likely to be a person of power, success and/or fame.

Answer 8

There is lots of evidence to show that behaviour gets imitated; including how aggressive behaviour gets copied Practical Application: the principles can be used to rehabilitate offenders, using good role models to reinforce appropriate behaviour, with appropriate reinforcements.

Answer 9

Doesn't regard individual differences It only regards social factors, and not biological factors; making it reductionist It doesn't provide an explanation for opportunistic crime which hasn't been observed and learnt first It mainly applies to light crimes, and not crimes like murder, rape, etc.

Answer 10

Traumatic Brain Injury | Long term alcohol / drug use

Answer 11

Traumatic brain injury occurs directly as a result of trauma on the brain e.g. being involved in a car accident, falling and injuring the head, or being assaulted in the head

Answer 12

Alcohol has a toxic effect on the CNS, and interferes with vitamin B1 (thiamine) absorption. Vitamin B1 is an important brain nutrient Drunkenness can impair balance or decision making, and also contributes to an increase in falls + accidents that may injure the brain

Answer 13

The consequence of brain injury depends on the area of the brain which has been injured; as different parts of the bran are responsible for different skills

Answer 14

Increase in: impulsive behaviour irritability aggression

Answer 15

TBI can affect temperament, temperance (self-restraint from drinking alcohol), and control impulses. Greater level of risk-taking behaviour.

Answer 16

The consequences of head injury (particularly the pre-frontal lobes) include: Reduced awareness of emotions, Loss of memory + concentration, Poor control over impulses Poor social judgement.

Answer 17

The NHS website reporting on brain injury suggests that: young people are most at risk of TBI, it affects 8.5% of the population, with males more at risk than females. Other research also indicates that being male is a risk factor for showing ASB + violence: More males suffering from a TBI may be due to how they're more likely to be involved in car accidents, fights, etc. It seems that the biological exp. of brain injury as a cause does not show gender differences in the biology of men + women from birth, but it shows gender differences in people experiencing TBI.

Answer 18

Phineas Gage Williams et al Credibility Reductionism Kreutzer Diaz (1995)

Answer 19

Gage got a 3.1ft metal pole struck in his head, damaging his prefrontal lobe. The wound physically healed, but he permanently became very vulgar + aggressive. He's a real life example that demonstrates the effect o brain injury and modification in behaviour that can become criminal

Answer 20

He found that 60% of the 196 prisoners they investigated had received some from of TBI, due to falling, car accidents + sports activities Some adults with TBI were relatively younger at entry in prison than those without brain injury, and reported higher rates of repeat offending.

Answer 21

Yes, as it comes from studies and case studies using brain scanning techniques, which are also completed in a scientific + standardised way.

Answer 22

There are other factors relating to criminal behaviour which can relate to criminal/ASB (e.g. being young, a male, witnessing violence in the family, etc.) Even though some studies show a relationship, it's hard to pinpoint brain injury alone as a cause of criminal behaviour

Answer 23

In their investigation of 74 patients, they concluded that criminal behaviour might be a result of post-injury changes, including poor judgement. Following further research, they concluded that TBI was not a risk factor of criminal behaviour, without the presence of a substance use history.

Answer 24

Diaz points out that there are individual differences in brain injury; making it hard to draw strong conclusions that a certain brain injury will lead to certain behaviour. When there are individual differences, issues about generalisability are subsequently raised.

Answer 25

The amygdala is responsible for dealing with human emotions.

Answer 26

Damage to the amygdala can result in a person becoming unemotional, or they may react aggressively to their emotions as they cannot reduce them.

Answer 27

Smaller amygdalae have been fond among individuals diagnosed with psychopathic personalities Individuals with smaller amygdalae were 3 times more likely to exhibit aggression, violence and psychopathic tendencies.

Answer 28

There is reduced amygdala functioning in people with psychopathic tendencies Psychopathic individuals have reduced amygdala functioning during moral-decision making.

Answer 29

Cannon + Briton severed neural connections to the cortex of cats. When these cats were provoked, they expressed behaviour normally associated with aggression (erect hair, growling and the baring of teeth). They called this behaviour 'sham rage'. It is now understood that the source of the rage came from the amygdala.

Answer 30

Shirtcliff et al: Empathy is shown more in girls, and conduct disorder is shown more in boys. They believe that the amygdala is important in emotions; and so differences in emotionality between the genders may come from differences in the amygdala. They also point out that empathy-related neurocircuitry is more active in females. However, it isn't generally emphasised that male + female brains differ with regard to amygdala functioning.

Answer 31

Monkey Studies Raine et al Neuroimaging

Answer 32

If the amygdala is electrically stimulated in monkeys, they become aggressive. If the amygdala is removed/ablated in monkeys, they have a huge reduction in fear + aggression, and become much friendlier towards other monkeys.

Answer 33

Raine et al found that there were differences in the amygdala and hippocampus between those pleading NGRI and their controls. Abnormal functioning in those areas could explain why the experimental group had all committed murder.

Answer 34

Neuroimaging is a research method that is standardised; and can show reliable findings as more than one person can analyse the scanned pictures. Neuroimaging is also a physical presence that can be analysed, making it credible.

Answer 35

Narabayashi | Evaluation of Raine

Answer 36

Narabayashi et al conducted psychosurgery on human patients with aggressive behaviour. They severed the amygdala from the limbic system, and found a mood-stabilising effect in the majority of patients over time.

Answer 37

Raine et al's study took place in an unnatural environment, where participants did a task which did not represent natural behaviour. Raine et al only focused on murderers, and not on any other criminal behaviour Raine et al's participant groups consisted of 39 males, and only 2 females

Answer 38

Other ways of explaining crime/ASB are social theories (e.g. Social Learning Theory) The amygdala as an explanation underplay the interconnection between biological and social factors, making it reductionist. They also don't take other individual differences into account.

Answer 39

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, giving a total of 46. Pairs 1 to 22 are identical or nearly identical. The 23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes: XX = female XY = male

Answer 40

A genetic condition that occurs when a male has an extra male (Y) chromosome within the 23rd pair. Therefore, they have a total of 47 chromosomes. This occurs in 1 in 1000 births, and occurs randomly at the time of conception.

Answer 41

Most boys with XYY will have a normal development, although some may grow faster and taller than usual. XYY syndrome has previously thought to make men overly aggressive and lack empathy, leading it to be known as a 'super male' syndrome. Some studies have shown they have a slightly lower level of intelligence, although still within the normal range, and some may have behaviour problems and be easily distracted. They may have poor writing skills, social and emotional difficulties, and some issues over control over impulsivity which could directly link with criminality/ASB

Answer 42

XYY is an explanation from criminal/ ASB that can only focus on males. Gender is an issue in XYY because of how such boys/men are seen in a society, rather than it being an issue between boys and girls.

Answer 43

Jacobs et al Application Frustration

Answer 44

Jacobs et al: For every 1000 in the prison population, 15 had XYY syndrome

Answer 45

It is important to know about XYY syndrome, as if found early, issues around physical, behavioural and emotional development can be addressed early.

Answer 46

Males with XYY syndrome have slightly lower intelligence, are more likely to have severe acne + minor birth effects. This could lead those with the syndrome being frustrated, which leads to them committing anti social behaviours.

Answer 47

Inaccuracies Reductionist Generalisability

Answer 48

Generalisability: XYY fails to account for criminal behaviour among women.

Answer 49

Accuracy: Around 75% of cases are not diagnosed/detected. Some studies looking into XYY syndrome identified those with it incorrectly. Visual cues can only be used to determine XYY. This is a subjective way of diagnosis.

Answer 50

XYY underplays the interconnection between nature and nurture. Even in studies that find XYY does relate to crime, there could be labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy as the cause of that link Genetically, someone may have XYY syndrome but any effect from the genetic difference can be down to environmental influence The problem is in splitting nature and nurture when looking for a cause

Answer 51

Eysenck believes that personality is determined by a person's biology, which in turn is determined by their genes. It is believed that certain personality traits lend themselves more toward anti-social behaviour.

Answer 52

Psychoticism Extroversion Neuroticism

Answer 53

High testosterone, and low MAO levels. Individuals lack empathy, and are aggressive, impersonal + cold. They can also be egocentric.

Answer 54

Low cortical arousal via the ARAS/ they have an underactive ARAS. Due to lower arousal, extroverts require more external stimulation. Individuals are outgoing, sociable and active. They want excitement and may become easily bored.

Answer 55

High activation and low threshold levels in the limbic system. Individuals have emotional instability, with anxiety, fear, depression + envy.

Answer 56

There is cortical arousal via the ARAS. Activity in the ARAS stimulates the cerebral cortex, which in turn leads to higher cortical arousal.

Answer 57

Ascending Reticular Activating System

Answer 58

Amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus.

Answer 59

Gran et al Center + Kemp Fonseca + Yule Gale + Edwards

Answer 60

48% of psychotic ex-offenders were likely to reoffend, compared to those not rated as highly psychotic.

Answer 61

They found a relationship between anti-social behaviour and psychoticism, in a sample of 11 delinquents.

Answer 62

They compared delinquents to non-delinquents, and found no difference in extroversion, psychoticism or neuroticism scores as measured by the EPI.

Answer 63

Found no difference in levels of arousal for introverts + extroverts during EEG measures.

Answer 64

A system that transmits messages to the limbic system, triggering the release of hormones and neurotransmitters

Answer 65

MZ twins share all genetic information, where is DZ twins share 50% of information If MZ twins are more alike in terms of aggressive behaviour than DZ; this suggests it is likely to be due to genes, rather than the environment

Answer 66

A problem with twin studies is that twins are often brought up in similar ways, making it hard to say whether the concordance rates are caused by genetic or environmental factors

Answer 67

Adoption studies help to determine if a change in the environment results in similar behaviours: If this happens it would suggest the behaviour showing is due to genetics

Answer 68

They studied male adoptees, and discovered that 85.7% of the male with criminal/minor offences had a biological father with a criminal record They also found that 31.1% of young male adoptees without a criminal record had a biological father with a criminal record The family concentration of ASB could be explained by genetic influence. It can also be explained by non-genetic, social transmissions of ASB within families (the nurture debate

Answer 69

Serotonin is considered to be the body's natural 'happy chemical'. It helps to relay messages from one part of the brain to another, and can help to regulate mood Lower levels of serotonin can be linked with increased aggression. It also plays a role in inhibiting impulses, other than aggressive ones. Therefore it's believed that serotonin can inhibit a impulsive response to stimuli; so low levels of serotonin may result in an overreaction in emotional stimulation, which may include aggression

Answer 70

Dopamine plays a key role in learning, and in the brains reward system. It's produced in response to rewarding stimuli such as food, sex and certain drugs Lavine (1997) found that an increase in dopamine levels through the use of amphetamines was associated with an increase in aggressive behaviour; suggesting the higher levels of dopamine correlate with higher levels of aggression Dopamine has also been shown to serve as a positive reinforcement for aggression; where being aggressive generate increased dopamine in the brain, this activating the brains reward system

Answer 71

Evidence of Link Cleare + Bond Couppis + Kennedy

Answer 72

Evidence of the role of neurotransmitters in aggression comes from correlation studies that suggest the link between neurotransmitters and aggression

Answer 73

They found that even in males with no history of psychiatric problems, low serotonin levels correlate with levels of aggression and hostility

Answer 74

They found that dopamine levels in mice would increase and act as a reward during an aggressive act. This could mean that the increased levels of dopamine are not a cause of aggression, but a consequence of it

Answer 75

Testosterone is an androgen; women produce some testosterone but in much lower quantities. Elevated levels of testosterone are associated with higher levels of aggression. The age in which men are most likely to be involved in violence between the ages of 15 and 25. It may be more than coincidental that this is also the time when men have the highest levels of testosterone

Answer 76

Dabbs et al Ellis Soler et al

Answer 77

They took saliva samples of adult male prisoners to test levels of testosterone. They found that those of higher levels of testosterone had a history of violent crime, whereas those with lower levels had committed only non-violent crimes. They also found that individuals with higher testosterone levels were more likely to be involved in direct confrontations with others in prison, and generally broke more rules

Answer 78

In 11 studies examining the relationship between blood + saliva testosterone levels and involvement in criminal activity, all 11 showed a positive but modest correlation in testosterone levels and involvement in testosterone related offences

Answer 79

A study into domestic violence found that male offenders had high levels of saliva testosterone than males with no domestic violence history

Answer 80

Elevated levels of testosterone may be as such a result of violence as they are a contributor. Thus the cause + effect relationship cannot be fully established

Answer 81

A specific way of asking to suspect/witness questions about an incident Designed to maximise the accuracy of the information obtained If inaccurate information is taken, this could lead to a wrongful conviction

Answer 82

1. Associations with the Event Memory of an event is based on a number of associations. Cues can be used to trigger further memories. 2. Original Area of the Event Retrieval from memory will be more affective if they reinstate the context of the original surroundings

Answer 83

1. Reinstate the context at the time of the Event 2. Report Everything 3. Change the Order in which the event is called 4. Change Perspective

Answer 84

Supports cue- dependent recall It encourages witnesses to recall specific issues (e.g. smells, time of day, weather, how they felt, etc) Helps put the person back in time to the incident, and may improve recall accuracy

Answer 85

Allows the witness to fully recall a narrative of the situation Games and initial account, without interruption There is then scope for the interviewer to ask further questions It clarifies significant moments in turn for more detail

Answer 86

Witnesses may exclude details they feel to be unimportant, but may actually be a cue for key information

Answer 87

We tend to recall stories in the correct order, leading us to reconstruct stories and draw on existing schemas Recalling events in reverse order can help a person avoid skipping over information that may have been taken for granted

Answer 88

Trying to adopt the viewpoint of someone else can encourage recall of events that may otherwise be omitted This can increase the accuracy of recall

Answer 89

Holliday (2003) Fisher et al Godden + Baddeley

Answer 90

Gieselman et al felt that although the cognitive interview encouraged participants to remember more of what happened in a crime event than a standard interview; the information record was not more accurate than the standard review

Answer 91

Other factors like individual differences may have affected how much information was recalled – if a witness has a brain injury or has witnessed a crime previously, their ability to recall would be different Cognitive interviewing requires specialist training in order to be used effectively. This training and expertise can be costly to police divisions Using this approach is not always helpful at the scene of the crime, when the importance at that time is placed on catching the perpetrator. Also the crime scene can be chaotic and busy which isn't always helpful

Answer 92

To ensure the interview process remains ethical it is important that interviewers are mindful of the need to remain impartial and open-minded to the information and witness may present. This will help to avoid the interview asking leading questions to support their own assumptions about the event Modern policing has moved away from interrogation techniques, which are more aggressive approach using psychological manipulation, to more thorough supportive interview process. They aim to get the truth rather than to see confessions The use of deception in interviews, where police may have provided intentionally ambiguous information or made up . Promises in order to seek confessions, are not practices followed within the British legal systems Any information within interviews needs to be given freely and willingly in order to be considered valid (with the witness or suspects' consent). Consent is obviously vital when interviewing younger children

Answer 93

Psychology as a Science: Lab-based research within eyewitness testimonies is commonly used. The lab setting is very controlled to minimise extraneous variables. Psychology over Time: Cognitive interviews are much more accurate than the standard police interview. Also, a revised cognitive interview, called the enhanced cognitive interview, now includes additional memory enhancing interview techniques and questions that validate the knowledge elicited by the witness. Although the overall benefits of the enhanced public interviews are yet to be established and reliable research, it does place greater demand on the interview than the original cognitive or standard police interview

Answer 94

Holliday has shown cognitive interviewing to be more useful than a standard interview that does not use the four components when interviewing children as young as five years old

Answer 95

They found that after training, detectives gained as much as 47% more useful information from witnesses to real crimes, compare to when they have been using standard interview techniques

Answer 96

This study shows context cues are useful in aiding recall: the main number of words remembered for conditions with the same environment for learning and recall (13 point 5/36 for dry/dry, and 11.4 for wet/wet) were much higher than those with dissimilar locations

Answer 97

To put together a relevant and effective treatment plan. It is about understanding the offender, after they have been sentenced in order to formulate an understanding of them

Answer 98

Offence analysis refers to the analysis of a crime, including assessment of the offender. Before carrying out a psychological formulation/case formulation, an offence analysis needs to be carried out first

Answer 99

Forensics psychologists were not present during the crime; they cannot observe the criminal behaviour Therefore, they find a similar offence and draw conclusions from that about a different offender. They can also look for behaviour and issues that go along with the offence (contingencies); and draw conclusions from everything observed. The idea is to look at the criminogenic state and attitudes.

Answer 100

Future events or circumstances which are possible, but can't be predicted with certainty.

Answer 101

Anything that is likely to cause criminal behaviour

Answer 102

Offence cycles Addiction to crime Psychological similarity Schema therapy

Answer 103

If any contingencies around the time of the offence are repeated, this could likely lead to the offence happening again. Once an offender has committed an offence, they can do it again in the same way. Therefore, treatment will focus on strategies to avoid the contingencies. (e.g. Setting up a lifestyle where needs are met, and so they don't have a need to offend)

Answer 104

If some offenders don't offend for a while, they get withdrawal symptoms and the desire to offend. The person should be reminded of the bad consequences of offending.

Answer 105

One means of assessment is to look at patterns in reasons for offending Behaviour can be said to be the same because they have the same function, or come from the same psychological processes as behaviours at the time of an offence.

Answer 106

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information. Schemas influence how people see the world, which are built from experiences with the world. Young et al discusses patterns of behaviour that are repeated, and they relate such behaviour to certain schemas or core beliefs. Repisodes: Episodes in someone's life that would repeat themselves- such as maladaptive responses to relationships, or to difficult life events. There are core ways of thinking that shape someone's behaviour, and such constructs can guide offending behaviour.

Answer 107

Before treating/punishing offenders, an assessment needs to be carried out which can take The form of an offence analysis. Then a psychological formulation/case formulation takes place, offenders can then be treated based on this

Answer 108

A way of making sense of a person's difficulties; by looking at their relationships, biological and social circumstances, life events, 'and how they have interpreted the events that have happened to them'.

Answer 109

Psychologists may undertake a psychological formulation to assess what influences offenders' behaviour, and to ensure the chance of re-offending is minimal.

Answer 110

They make sense of a person's difficulties; through looking at their relationships, biological and social circumstances, life events and how they personally interpreted the event. They try to account for how the problems developed, and how they're maintained. They also try to integrate lots of information from offence analyses and assessments into some key features

Answer 111

Early Experiences: What happened to them growing up Core Beliefs: Thoughts that are important to the person Triggers: Things that influenced the behaviour Situation: Where the certain behaviour took place Thoughts / Behaviour / Physical Symptoms / Feelings: emotions throughout the situation

Answer 112

A psychological formulation is a hypothesis about someone's psychological, interpersonal and behavioural problems considering their causes. Theories used in a formulation include: behavioural, cognitive and pychodynamic

Answer 113

They help simplify a lot of complex explanations of the offender's behaviour. Helps professional make decisions about the individual's future Useful way of explaining the offender themselves what led them to committing the offender. Case Formulations tend to be brief- there are specific features in formulations (e.g. cognitive formulations might include ideas about underlying schemas)

Answer 114

Although the BPS has issued some guidance, psych formulations don't follow a specific structure, meaning that they're not standardised. The gathering of information is subjective, and psychologists may focus on different aspects. This makes them unreliable Most formulations are seen as tentative (not certain or fixed; mouldable), and ready to be revised in light of new information. For example, if an offender doesn't respond to treatment and new information is found, this leads to new formulations

Answer 115

Some offenders are put on anger management a part of their treatment due to the nature of the offense, or because of personal characteristics. Anger is a natural healthy response- it's bad when rage takes a person over and puts strain on them.

Answer 116

There is more focus on what triggers the outburst of anger or aggression, and how that trigger can be changed. Such anger is thought of more as inappropriate thinking patterns and reactions, rather than as 'outbursts'. There is focus on thinking patterns (cognitive part) and the aggressive reaction (behavioural part)

Answer 117

A programme could take form of a twice-weekly group meeting. First, there is focus on helping the group work together. Group skills are used, such as having a check in; where each person describes their day and their progress. Gradually, these can turn to discussions of what makes the person angry, and such sessions would end in something positive they dislike. The sessions then introduce the idea of changing the thoughts that relate to an angry response, and ending with something positive.

Answer 118

Controlling Anger and Learning to Manage it

Answer 119

CALM teaches participants, focusing on men, to monitor and understand their emotions in order to prevent problematic behaviour. Participants learn the skills necessary to reduce the frequency, intensity and duration of anger, to reduce the likelihood of aggression.

Answer 120

The CALM sessions are practical, highly structured, sequential, and designed for delivery to groups of adolescent + adult males at risk of inappropriate violent behaviour; and in many cases, criminal recidivism. Personal assignments, modelling, role-play, teamwork and self/peer evaluation are used to promote long term changes of inappropriate thought patterns.

Answer 121

1. Cognitive Preparation: Offenders identify situation when an aggressive outburst is likely to occur. From there, thought patterns are challenged. 2. Skill Acquisition: New coping skills are learned to help deal with anger-provoking situations (e.g. relaxation, or social skills like assertiveness) 3. Application Practice: Offenders roleplay a variety of scenarios to practice new skills to control anger. They're conducted in controlled experiments, so offenders feel safe, and untrained individuals are not exposed to risk of harm.

Answer 122

They explored a drama-based programme named 'Insult to Injury'. They helped look at what triggered offenders' anger. The approach provided a safe and secure environment. Issues like masculinity, victim awareness and pride + shame were explored One group of 62 adult UK males took part in the 9 day course. Significant anger reductions were found.

Answer 123

CBT has shown to be effective, in helping to treat many emotional difficulties. Wilson, Bouffard and MacKenzie: In a meta analysis of 20 group-oriented CBT research studies, CBT was found to reduce recidivism up to 30% more than control groups. However, some meta-anaylsis studies show a greater effect than others; and so it's not certain what aspect of the therapy works on what type of offender.

Answer 124

Anger management is only effective in those offenders who have problems with anger control. It's not effective for all crimes. It's only effective for those motivated to change their behaviour, and are committed to the programmed. CBT isn't a form of counseling, and therefore doesn't focus on overcoming emotional reactions. They also only focus on the 'here and now', although it does acknowledge past thoughts + experiences.

Answer 125

Dopamine affects the brain's rewards system. High dopamine level increase aggression. High aggression leads to higher rewards. Amphetamines increase dopamine levels, and thus amphetamines correspond with higher aggression.

Answer 126

Dopamine antagonists (e.g. risperidone) They block receptors on which dopamine acts. This reduces dopamine activity, reducing aggression.

Answer 127

AIM: To investigate the effect of risperidone among adolescents PROCEDURE: 169 adolescent boys with a below average IQ. There was a randomised control trial; where they got either risperidone, or a placebo RESULTS: After 6 weeks, those who took risperidone had a 56% improvement in symptoms; whereas the placebo had a 21% improvement. CONCLUSION: Risperidone is effective in reducing symptoms of aggression.

Answer 128

There are greater levels of testosterone in men. Testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissue, and is required to maintain muscle strength and bone density. Elevated testosterone has been documented among individuals with a history of aggression.

Answer 129

Female hormone MPA Decreases the function of testosterone, breaks down and eliminates testosterone, and inhibits the production of ‘Luteinising Hormone’ through the pituitary gland. (Significant side effects include breast enlargement, osteoporosis and depression)

Answer 130

Research studies regarding biological treatment use placebos, which reduce demand characteristics. Loosen et al: the administration of MPA resulted in marked reduction in outwardly directed anger among all 8 participants with their study. (although, all ppts were non-aggressive men)

Answer 131

Much guidance for hormone treatment states that medication alone should not be the treatment plan. It can take up to 4 weeks for SSRIs to have a noticeable effect on the individual. People may not consistently take it if they don't see any effect. There can be physical side effects: This means the treatment may not be suitable for everyone if they have certain medical conditions, or because the side effects are too severe. They may become too over-reliant on antidepressants, and so will need higher and higher doses to get the same effect. This makes them almost 'obsessed' with the drug.

Answer 132

Serotonin is responsible for maintaining mood balance Low levels of serotonin can link to aggression Levels can be increased by SSRIs, which are a form of antidepressants. Serotonin is usually reabsorbed by nerve cells after carrying a message in the brain (aka 'reuptake'). SSRIs inhibit this reuptake. This means more serotonin is available to pass further messages between the neurons

Answer 133

Eyewitnesses are those who see an event such as a crime occurring The police usually interview them and document everything the person saw They are likely to be required to go to court, so they can tell the judge and jury what they saw during the event Our memories aren't as accurate as what we want/expect, and can be affected by a number of different factors, all of which influences how reliable we are in court

Answer 134

The experiences of the witness in the time period from the event and the recall may have an effect on what they think they say during the offense Other information could confabulate the info they've already encoded Different sources (e.g. media coverage) may augment or degrade a person's witness report We tend to recall the main points only, or underlie meaning in a way that makes most sense to the individual. We don't recall info in the exact same way we encode it Info may be particularly affected if the event was unusual, or outside normal experience.

Answer 135

Most of what we know about EWT comes from Loftus' research. Exposure to misleading post information decreases the accuracy of EWT. For participants receiving inaccurate information, the accuracy often fell below chance levels of performance- this pattern of results is the misinformation effect.

Answer 136

Loftus used a lab experiment to see if people accept false childhood memories, and found they did. 29% recalled a childhood story of being lost, crying, an elderly woman consoling him, and going back to their family.

Answer 137

Females were more reliable eyewitnesses, and were more accurate when describing people (in particular, victims) It''s generally thought that there are small gender differences, and they relate to specific cognitive abilities between the 2 sexes.

Answer 138

Participants watched a slide sequence depicting a workman stealing some items from an office. Participants then read a description of the target event containing either neutral information, or misleading information about objects present in the slides. They were also given either a standard recognition test, or a cue recalled test. Ppts were asked closed questions in condition 1, and open questions in condition 2. !U: Figure out what they actually found! (The questions, however, were phrased in a way that the misleading answer was not a logical response. Therefore, the findings are weak.)

Answer 139

Poole + Lindsay investigated the accuracy of recall on 5-7 year olds, and found that after a 3 month delay, children were found to be influenced by leading questions (Issues with generalisability)

Answer 140

Lab experiements have the advantage of being highly controlled settings, to allow a strong case and effect relationship to occur. Lab experiments are unlikely to create the same emotional reactions in watching a film of a crime scene, than if they were actually there. They also may reduce normal characteristics of a crime, as ppts know it isn't real

Answer 141

Leading questions come from a number of sources, including interviews. They may be used unintentionally (gaining information, or intentionally (to confuse witnesses, and get their client a non-guilty verdict)

Answer 142

(Classical Study) They concluded that leading questions have an influence on people's memory.

Answer 143

The research was based on a real life gunshot robbery: witness interviews were compared to police records of the other testimony. They found that the witnesses had detailed memories of the event, and won't misled by leading questions (However, they used a small participant group, questioning validity.)

Answer 144

When a weapon is in a scene, a witness tends to grow attention onto the weapon, and so other information is recalled less.

Answer 145

Steblay carried out a meta-analysis on 19 studies, looking at weapon focus and its effect on eyewitness memory. He found a significant difference between the weapon/non-weapon conditions. Sometimes it caused them to remember more, and sometimes it made them forget. The study used both students and non-students.

Answer 146

Applicable to any crime situation The high level of stress + arousal may affect how much information a witness encodes. As a weapon causes an optimum level of arousal, the witness can't recall other details as well as the weapon.

Answer 147

Because a weapon is unusual in many cultures, it is focused on more closely, at the expense of peripheral information.

Answer 148

Research evidence showed that weapon focus may work because attentional cues are narrowed to the weapon; perhaps because arousal increases. Weapon focus may work because weapons are novel objects, which take more attention than appropriate items. Research evidence found that a novel and a threatening object lead to more misidentification.

Answer 149

Loftus et al suggested that weapon focus occurs because the presence of a weapon focuses attention away from the less dramatic visual images, such as the image of the perpetrator In a lab experiment showing ppts a series of slides of a customer in a restaurant; when the customer was holding a gun, this lead to ppts being less likely to identify the culprit. When the customer was holding a chequebook, they were more likely to identify the culprit.

Answer 150

Lab experiment, showing a video consisting of the scene from a hair salon. A man walked to a receptionist holding scissors/ a handgun/ raw chicken / a wallet/ nothing. She then handed him money. Ppts then completed a 10 minute filler exercise before completing the questionnaire asking them to recall details The handgun and raw chicken resulted in the poorest recall; suggesting that it is threat and unusualness that has an effect on recall.

Answer 151

They investigated real life events. They coded police interviews taken from witnesses/victims of robberies assaults and rapes investigated by two separate police forces in Britain. They then compared them to the police description of the suspect There was no evidence of any effect of weapon presence on feature accuracy

Answer 152

They conducted a meta-analysis on what causes our memories to be influenced by weapon presence. They concluded that weapon focus negatively affects feature/identification accuracy in both controlled and real life situations The factors complicating weapon focus within real world research include how long the witness was exposed to the weapon. (This is easily controlled in lab settings)

Answer 153

People's cognition/memory are different Women recall memory better than men People may have brain injury People may have had traumatic experiences with certain weapons

Answer 154

Emotion can cause the individual to struggle to process what they are seeing, and fail to encode information from the crime scene Stress levels go extremely high when people observe criminal activity which can heavily influence the chance of EWT recalling the information.

Answer 155

They found that people who saw a film of a violent attack remembered fewer of the 40 items of information about the event, than a control group who saw a less stressful version. As witnessing a real life crime is probably more stressful than taking part in an experiment, memory accuracy may well be even more affected in real life.

Answer 156

They showed that witnesses of a real life incident where a thief stole guns + money, was shot 6 times and died, had remarkably accurate memories of the event. They illustrated: There are cases of real life events where memory and recall is accurate. Misleading questions need not have the same effect as has been found in lab studies.

Answer 157

For all cases in the Crown Court (which gives more serious sentences for those who are guilty), a jury (consisting of 12 adults) is selected to assist a judge in the case. They have to decide, as a group, whether the defendant is guilty or not The judge relies entirely on the jury, making them extremely important.

Answer 158

The trial process is vulnerable at many stages, as the jury members are suspectible to influence throughout the process, even before being selected as a jury member, and after all the evidence has been presented.

Answer 159

Competence and Instructions | Pre-Trial Publicity

Answer 160

Publicity surrounding the offence, defendant or other information can influence the schemas of the jury. A criminal case is often documented in the media for a significant time, before it goes to trial. The media can create a perception about the defendant and other parties, even before official information is given. This can change schemas which are difficult to change back.

Answer 161

Jurors are expected to listen to often technical information which may be far outside of their own knowledge base

Answer 162

Forster Lee et al Lovett + Kovera Severance + Loftus

Answer 163

Giving instructions prior to the presentation of technical information increased their ability to focus on relevant information to the trial rather than afterwards. This is because they could filter out what was irrelevant.

Answer 164

The juries have difficulty evaluating what scientific evidence is in accuracies, due to difficulties in understanding the meaning of the evidence

Answer 165

Having key terms explained improved understanding of legal concepts; but not all demonstrated understanding. There is understanding for terms the jury may be familiar with, but does little to improve understanding of more legal, unfamiliar terms

Answer 166

Factual Publicity is likely to include incriminating information about the defendant or the case, such as what happened during the crime.

Answer 167

It is likely to present information that could arouse negative emotions.( E.g. info about the defendant or victims past)- This is seen to have the longer lasting influence on jury members.

Answer 168

Steblay | Ogloff + Vidmar

Answer 169

Steblay undertook a meta-analysis of 44 empirical tests; found that jurors exposed to negative pre-trial publicity were significantly more likely to judge the defendant guilty

Answer 170

They looked at a real child sex abuse case- they found that potential jurors would express negative bias in the presence of negative pre-trial publicity, and were unaware that they have the bias.

Answer 171

Studies that use an experimental methods involve careful controls Scientific procedures are carried out Enough research has been done into this to carry out meta-analyses

Answer 172

They may lack ecological validity Many studies use students- not generalisable

Answer 173

Defendant Characteristics Expert Witness Testimony Story Models Witness Characteristics

Answer 174

Expert witness testimony is often used to give scientific credibility to evidence and help clarify complex issues. Warning the jury about the reliability of certain witness evidence does reduce trust of the evidence; but doesn't necessarily discriminate between good and bad evidence

Answer 175

Research evidence showed jurors tend to disregard the warnings about EWT, and still follow it Cutler et al: Jurors were more likely to give guilty verdicts when the eye witness used easier language.

Answer 176

When faced with complex information, jurors are likely to pick out key information/facts, and create a story out of it to make sense of the information given to them

Answer 177

Pennington + Hastie: When an account of an offence was easy to understand, 78% of the ppts (who were jurors) gave a guilty verdict. When it wasn’t, 31% gave a guilty verdict. This suggests that legal representatives should consider how they structure their legal arguments, and that this can be used as a means of potentially influencing the outcome of the trial

Answer 178

Social psychology has identified that an authoritarian personality is most likely to be followed by others, and a confident authoritarian witness may influence the jury. Race, accent and attractiveness of the witness may also influence the jurors, based on the schemas and stereotypes; as has been evidenced for defendants

Answer 179

``` Conformity Understanding of the Trial (Jury characteristics) Minority Influence Social Loafing Foreperson Influence ```

Answer 180

When an individual gives their views under pressure. They may not give their actual thoughts on the case. There are two types of conformity: normative + informational

Answer 181

The juror conforms to avoid rejection from the group or to gain rewards from, even though they may not personally agree

Answer 182

The individual conforms to the group norms because they do not know what to do and looks to the group for guidance. It may be that the individual does not understand the legal technicalities of the case.

Answer 183

Asch (1951) found that the most influential groups size to gain conformity was 7:1. He also showed that difficult tasks and the higher status of some group members also influenced others to conform

Answer 184

The understanding of the jury in the Vicky Pryce trial in February 2013 was questionable. She was accused of falsely admitting she was driving the car when a husband at the time, Chris Huhne (a member of parliament), was caught speeding. The jury had listened to all the information and were at the 'deliberation stage' (this happens towards the end of a trial). They asked some basic questions that raised significant concerns to the judge about their understanding of the role, and of the information given to them in court. The defendant faced a possible prison sentence if found guilty, so it was important they knew + understood the information The judge considered that he had no choice but to dismiss the first jury, select a new one and hold a retrial, in the hope they would understand and be able to make an informed decision

Answer 185

A decision using all of the available facts and information. Once the information has been gathered, the person can evaluate it to make their decision

Answer 186

The jury is expected to have a sufficient level of understanding of the English language, formal discussions and an ability to evaluate the information given to them. Their abilities in this area may therefore have a significant effect on the decisions they make at the trial

Answer 187

It does not always require a large number of individuals to influence the decision of one juror Moscovici (1976)- suggests that one or a small minority of like-minded individuals may influence the majority. He found this to be the case if they are consistent, committed in their opinions and arguments, seem to be acting on principle rather than out of self gain and incur some costs; as well as being not overly rigid and unreasonable in their opinions and arguments

Answer 188

Not every individual who serve on the jury is motivated to attend. Many people are there only because they have summoned to participate. Such individuals may therefore be inclined to deliberate less Social loafing refers to a reduction in individual effort on a collective task, in which the output is pooled with those of other group members, compared to working alone Knowing that the final jury decision is a collective one, an individual jury member may be inclined to review the information less than they would if it was their decision alone; thereby letting of the jury members think for them and influence their decisions

Answer 189

All juries will have a foreperson, who will be the individual to present the decision of the jury back to the judge. The foreperson is often perceived as a leader, and a selection of the foreperson often reflects this. Leaders are more likely to influence others as they are considered best placed to make a decision. If this individual has an authoritarian personality, this may further influence of the jury members. However, evidence for the influence of the foreperson is more limited than other post-trial factors

Answer 190

Race Gender Attractiveness Accent

Answer 191

One common finding is that white jurors in mock trials demonstrate negative bias to black, compared to white defendants. More black defendants are found guilty than white defendants.

Answer 192

Bradbury + Williams (2013) Skolnick + Shaw (1997) Abwender + Hough (2001)

Answer 193

They found that black defendants are less likely to be convicted by juries with a higher proportion on black jurors; and are more likely to by white or Hispanic jurors.

Answer 194

While jurors of the same ethnicity were less likely to give a guilty verdict, white jurors were more likely to find a black defendant not guilty. The same effect was not found, vice versa. This was speculated to be because white jurors didn’t want to be viewed as racist

Answer 195

Undertook mock trials, which involved white, black + Hispanics defendants; and investigated race + attractiveness. Black participants showed more leniency to black defendants, whereas Hispanics showed the opposite, and white participants showed no bias. This suggests that racial bias has a more complicated effect on JDM, as racial bias isn’t consistent among racial groups

Answer 196

Defendants are instructed to present themselves in a smart + tidy fashion when going to court This can help to reduce any stereotypes the jury may have against the defendant, and can influence their decision on the defendant The Attractiveness Effect: Unattractive people are seen as more likely to commit crime than attractive people

Answer 197

Sigall + Ostrove Abwender + Hough Saladin et al Quigley et al

Answer 198

They asked 120 participants to make sentence recommendations for a defendant for either burglary or fraud. They were given a piece of card with a crime written on it, either fraud or burglary, and a photograph of a woman known as Barbara Helms. There were 6 of conditions to the research. The participants were separated into 6 groups of 20 participants, with each group having a different experimental condition*. All participants were asked to rate Barbara's attractiveness to ensure they agreed which photographs showed her as unattractive and attractive. They were then all asked to give her a prison sentence from between 1 and 15 years for the crime They found that Barbara was sentenced to longer in prison in the fraud conditions and less time in prison for burglary in the attractive photo condition. A similar length of sentence was given for both crimes in the unattractive and no photograph conditions. This suggested it was the attractiveness of the photograph that influenced their decision. This could be due to an assumption that attractive people use their looks to con people out of to an This money, whereas attractive people are not associated with burglary *6 conditions: Attractive/Unattractive/No photo of Barbara committing burglary/fraud (Lacks ecological validity, as the jury only makes a decision on guilt, and do not decide the length of a sentence for a defendant who has been found guilty-only the judge has the legal power to do that)

Answer 199

Female jurors were harsher to an unattractive defendant, than an attractive one. Males showed the opposite

Answer 200

They showed ppts photos of 8 men, and asked the ppts to judge how capable they would be of committing armed robbery + murder. Unattractive men were considered ore likely to have committed either crime than the unattractive men (the attractiveness effect)

Answer 201

The attractiveness effect is most evident with serious but non-fatal crimes such as burglary, and when females are being judged However, the attractiveness effect is not present if people are considered to be using their attractiveness for material gain, such as in fraud cases

Answer 202

John Dixon + Bernice Mahoney are British psychologists who have conducted a lot of research on accent and JDM. They, with other colleagues, typically focused on the Birmingham accent, likely due to the geographical area where they work. They identified a probable level of prejudice acquiring towards those with a strong Birmingham accent, compare to a non-Birmingham accent

Answer 203

In their 1997 study, participants were given a transcript and a tape recording to listen to, with different accents. Birmingham accents were considered to be guiltier; and black defendants with a Birmingham accent were seen as guiltier than white defendants with a Birmingham accent. All participants were white, non-Birmingham students

Answer 204

Much of the research used doesn't fully control all variables – it isn't possible to establish a cause and effect relationship Experimental research doesn't account that actual jury members are subject to a range of factors that influence their JDM: so we must be cautious when saying these characteristics definitely influence JDM Other factors that may influence: own past experiences surrounding a similar offence; similarities and reminders of someone else they know; persuasion of other jury members during deliberation Lab experiments aren't ecologically valid. Real jurors may react differently in such settings. Also in lab experiments, they may put emphasis on specific variables (e.g. accent), which may not be noticed within a trial setting A lot of research uses only students as participants

Answer 205

Looking neater and better presented means you're less likely to be found guilty This affects individuals as a jury member, but the effect hasn't been found with the jury as a whole

Answer 206

Attractiveness doesn't have an impact with serious crimes (e.g. domestic violence)

Answer 207

We may see other races as guilty as we see someone of our own race as similar to ourselves, and so we have more empathy for them

Answer 208

Males are more likely to be seen as guilty than females Guy + Edens: found that this is more so when the defendant is a "psychopath" Women are more caring and so are less likely to commit certain crimes

Answer 209

Gender influences jurors decision-making greatly; and preconceived notions of the traditional role of males + females explain this. Jurors see female defendants as more believable than male defendants. This assumption is likely to be based on males committing high crimes and having high reoffending rates. Additionally, female defendants are often mothers with primary responsibility for their children, which makes them seem unlikely to commit a serious crime, and/or be treated leniently by the court.

Answer 210

Females are more likely to be empathetic towards defendants, compared to male jurors. (eg female jurors are more likely to request that defendants receive psychiatric care)

Answer 211

Women's level of empathy differs when the case is concerned with rape: Women are ,ore likely to find the male accused of rape to be guilty. This may happen because women are likely to identify with other females, and so be more harsh with the Defendant accused Studies/research looking into gender bias in the court room often use the most severe crimes, and a standard population of students. It isn't generalisable.

Answer 212

To examine whether the racial makeup of a jury affects it's decision making. To test these 2 hypotheses: H1: Black defendants will be more likely to be convicted by juries composed of a higher number of white jurors. H2: Black defendants will be more likely to be convicted by juries composed of a higher number of Hispanic jurors.

Answer 213

Data was collected from real trials from 4 states. The cases chosen were ones with a hung jury (no initial agreement) Only trials that included black defendants were examined.

Answer 214

They examined real life cases from 4 states. They tested whether the racial makeup of a jury affected whether or not a trial resulted in conviction. They then undertook complex statistical analysis.

Answer 215

IV: Racial makeup of the jury Mostly Black / White / Hispanic DV: Whether or not a trial resulted in conviction

Answer 216

1. Quantity of Evidence 2. Case Type (violence / property / drug offence) 3. Length of the Trial 4. Length of Jury Deliberation 5. Strength of the Case 6. Presence of Written Instructions to Jury 7. Lawyer Type (Public or Private)

Answer 217

In order to assess whether there was a significant relationship, the researcher undertook complex statistical analysis. This included logistic regression.

Answer 218

Diversity within the jury pool is likely to have an impact on the outcome Black defendants are more likely to be convicted if the % of other ethnicity jurors is higher than black jurors The selection process of jury members can therefore bias the outcome.

Answer 219

Diversity within the jury pool is likely to have an impact on the outcome Black defendants are more likely to be convicted if the percentage of other ethnic city to raise is higher than black jurors

Answer 220

Ecological Validity: They used actual jury trials, providing more reliable data regarding JDM Internal Validity: There were seven control variables Researcher Bias: The study uses both quantitative and qualitative data- quantitative data is less subjective

Answer 221

Generalisability: It is very rare to get data from actual trials – findings may possibly reflect an unknown uniqueness. The cases only focused on black defendants. Therefore the findings may not be applicable to other races. Internal Validity: They used real trials, meaning they can't control all variables (e.g. Individual differences, etc) Secondary Data: Sources may have been cherry picked Shaw + Skolnick: Argued that white jurors aren't as likely to give guilty verdicts to black jurors, in order to not seem racist.

Answer 222

To investigate whether leading questions could influence the estimates of the speed of a vehicle among eyewitnesses. To apply this to the court process

Answer 223

45 students

Answer 224

45 students saw 7 short clips (5-30 secs) of a traffic accident They gave an account of what happened, and then answered specific questions about the accident. The critical question was "how fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?" Each received either: hit / smashed / contacted / collided / bumped They applied this procedure to every film.

Answer 225

``` Smashed - 40.8 Collided - 39.3 Bumped - 38.1 Hit - 34.0 Contacted - 31.8 ``` When the actual speed was 20, the estimated speed was 37.3 When the actual speed was 30, the estimated speed was 36.2 When the actual speed was 40, the estimated speed was 39.7/36.1 This shows people aren't good at estimated speed (All in mph)

Answer 226

The form of question can affect the answer This is due to 2 reasons: - People can't judge speeds between 30 and 40 mph and so use the wording to help them - The wording affects memory and recall

Answer 227

To investigate whether leading questions can influence recall

Answer 228

150 students, split into 3 equal groups

Answer 229

150 students watched a film showing a multiple car accident They were given a questionnaire, and we split into 3 equal groups: 1. "How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other?" 2. "How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?" 3. No question about speed was asked One week later, they answer 10 questions. The critical question was: "Did you see any broken glass?" (none was actually present)

Answer 230

32% of the Smashed participants said yes 14% of the Hit participants said yes 12% of the Control Group said yes

Answer 231

Two kinds of information goes into memory Information during the event Information after the event This is the reconstructive hypothesis.

Answer 232

The change in the verb can affect recall.

Answer 233

Inter-Rater Reliability: Loftus + Zanni (1975) found "the" is more powerful than "a" in planting memories in leading questions R: Loftus used standardised film length and questions which were rotated, allowing for replication of the experiment R/V: The high control over extraneous variables such as the actual speed of the cars travelling in the video allows for replication consistently making research reliable. I.V: The critical questions were hidden amongst other questions, so ppts could not get the aim and show demand characteristics I.V: L+P showed clips of varying speeds, which did not affect the estimated speed; strengthening the cause-and-effect relationship between leading questions and speed estimates

Answer 234

Police practices have been improved as a result of research and now they avoid leading questions in interrogations The Devlin committee was set up to investigate EWT in courts, and found that many people have been convicted of serious crimes, by EWT alone. As a result, the police and legal professionals are guided to minimise the use of leading Qs. The justice system is aware of the need to keep witnesses in isolation before giving their statements to police/in court, in order to avoid leading questions from other witnesses distorting the accuracy of testimonies The justice system should question the strength of EWTs in court and only rely upon it if it is consistent with other forensic evidence

Answer 235

G: The sample only consisted of students which doesn't represent society G: Students regularly follow instructions from their lecturers, and may be more easily influenced by leading questions; making the sample unrepresentative of society I.V: Results may be due to demand characteristics, and lack validity as ppts may have guessed of the car rather than actually remembering it as faster in the question condition Task Validity: The ppts had more focused attention on the video than a real eyewitness would on an actual indirect. Therefore the experiment lacks task validity E.V: A video was shown as opposed to being a real life situation. This reduces the amount of emotional strain, and questions validity

Answer 236

D: Ppts were deceived as they were unaware of the misleading questions in the interrogation interview (however, this was unavoidable as telling them about the leading question would increased demand characteristics) P: Ppts were made to watch a car crash, which may have caused distress or psychological harm to ppts, especially if they have experienced a car crash (However the video was a health and safety video; therefore the content was designed to be viewed by the public without causing stress or psychological harm – this doesn't have to be known)

Answer 237

People may interpret things differently People may have different schemas and experiences, which may affect how they interpret the wording

Answer 238

The effect of weapon focus on recall

Answer 239

To investigate the effect of weapon focus on the accuracy of recall. This was in order to test the study by Loftus + Palmer, which suggested that a weapon does affect recall, compared to a non- weapon (which in their study was a gun and a purse)

Answer 240

We gathered our participants using the opportunity sampling technique by asking Seven kings if they would like to be a part of our research. This was used because it is time + cost efficient

Answer 241

Independent Measures

Answer 242

We measured the independent variable which was environmental context We this by making two videos which either did include a weapon, or did not We measured the dependent variable which was accuracy of recall We did this by creating a questionnaire about the video they watched 5 minutes before

Answer 243

We had 20 participants in total. We had a total number of 6 boys and 14 girls. We divided our participants into 2 groups. 10 participants (control group) watched a video without a weapon in a classroom and 10 participants (experimental group) watch a video with a weapon in a classroom.

Answer 244

Both groups experienced the same conditions the films were both the same and tasted 3 we minutes each e. the situation and events were the same), the weapon was the only thing removed in one video. After watching the video both groups were given 5 minutes of rest time, they then questionnaire in a classroom. They were given 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire. They were then debriefed.

Answer 245

Competence: This will be met because the experimenter has vast psychological knowledge, and so was competent to arrange the experiment. Informed consent: This will be met by participants being asked for their consent before the experiment officially started. Debriefing: This will be met by participants being given a brief before the experiment, and a debriefing after Right to withdraw: This will be met by the participants having the right to withdraw at any part of the experiment Psychological harm: This will be met by the experimenter giving participants the opportunity to discuss any problems/psychological stress that may have been gained from the video watched.

Answer 246

The total score recalled out of 110 in group A was 60. The total score recalled out of 110 in group B was 60. The sum of rank in group A was 112. The sum of rank in group B was 98

Answer 247

The calculated/observed value of the Mann Whitney U test was 43. This was greater than the critical value of 27, for a one tailed test at (P<0.05) with N=10. Therefore the result is is not significant and the alternative null hypothesis can be supported which states that: "There will be no difference between the accuracy of recall of answers given in a questionnaire, between the group who watch a video with a weapon presence and a group who watch a video without a weapon presence (context of event), any difference between the 2 groups will be due to chance.

Answer 248

We concluded that that weapon focus has no significant effect on the accuracy of recall, and any difference will be due to chance. This may be due to extraneous variables which may have affected the results, like the participants' memories all differing. This research is inconsistent with previous research by Loftus + Palmer who found that a weapon does affect recall, compared to a non-weapon (which in their study was a gun and a purse).

Answer 249

G: The sample consisted of 20 ppts' which is the minimum required for a study to be generalisable to society R: The questionnaire used closed questions: Everyone had the same questionnaire, and it wa standardised. Also, closed questions can't be interpreted differently/ aren't subjective This makes the findings reliable. E.V: The experiment involved pots who are sixth form student, who were given the questionnaire in a school environment (a natural environment to them). This would influence more natural behaviour I.V: We used a control group ofthose who watched a video without a weapon present. This allowed us to make comparisons between the group to establish a valid cause + effect relationship I.V: The experiment took place in conditions that were controlled (e.g. the amount of time between watching the video and doing the questionnaire was the same for both groups); meaning they had no influence on results, making it internally valid.

Answer 250

G: The ppts were all sixth form students, which is not representative of society. Therefore, th findings were not generalisable. G: The ppts consisted of 14 female and 6 male ppts. There weren't not enough male ppts to generalise to males in society R: We also were able to write a witness report on what was seen in the video. This can be interpreted differently, making this subjective, and thus unreliable R: We didn't repeat the test twice. Therefore, we are unaware if the same results would be found if the experiment was repeated; making it lack test-retest reliability E.V: The experiment took place in a school environment where we watched an artificial recount of a criminal event. The procedure does not reflect a natural environment, making our results not ecologically valid/ task valid I.V: The experiment couldn't control certain extraneous variables to do with the participants, like how focused they were, whether they could hear what was being said, and their overall memory. This would've had an effect on the results, limiting internal validity I.V: The volume of the video may have affected what they heard, which would be a confounding variable affecting the DV

Answer 251

The results can be used to say that in a criminal event, a weapon will have no true influence on how much an eyewitness is able to recall about the criminal event

Answer 252

Is EWT too unreliable to trust?

Answer 253

EWT refers to the information given by a witness, after seeing an event/crime occur. It can be recorded in the police statement, or given as a verbal testimony in court. EWT is often used to corroborate forensic evidence: A lot of forensic evidence is difficult for jurors to understand, and so they depend more on the eyewitness testimonies, whom they can relate to and have confidence in. Jurors have to decide whether someone is guilty or not through the evidence given, and that's an inaccurate EWT would lead to an inaccurate verdict. Research has been undertaken to question the reliability of eyewitness testimony is. Some research has found it to be unreliable. Therefore, the Devlin Report (1976) was produced to conclude that courts should be cautious on solely relying on EWT without other evidence.

Answer 254

Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory describes how we try to fit what we remember with what we already know and understand. This can lead to eyewitnesses reconstructing the memory to fit with their understanding of the world; which can lead to eyewitnesses reconstructing and altering their memory. For example, a perpetrators appearance or accent may trigger schemas the witness already has, which will influence how they perceive the crime

Answer 255

Post event information discusses what the eyewitness is exposed to after the event and before the trial. New events/information can alter the memory of the event; as investigated by Elizabeth Loftus and her research. It can then be difficult to isolate the true memory of the event, without the additional influences

Answer 256

Individual characteristics of the witness. Post event factors (like how the witness is questioned). Duration of time between the event and recall of the event

Answer 257

Most research into EWT is via lab experiments; and so the ecological validity can be questioned

Answer 258

Are use a naturalistic case study as opposed to a lab study; and found that real life eyewitnesses demonstrated great accuracy in their recall, and what influenced by leading questions

Answer 259

In recall of naturalistic scenes, previous knowledge drawn from semantic memory could contribute to accurate recall in episodic memory tasks. This study seriously questions the way experimental research purporting to claim that EWT is valid is conducted.

Answer 260

Lots of experimental research actively constructs a situation that encourages flawed recall, such as the staging of unusual objects; which reflects what would happen in real life

Answer 261

Yarmey's field experiment focuses on identification of a person in the street and a later set of photographs. His findings do not support the argument for the reliability of eyewitness testimony is using a more realistic methodology, as Correct identification only occurred approximately 50% of the time. There is, however, an argument for further research to be undertaken outside a lab setting so that the findings can be considered more ecologically valid

Answer 262

Flashbulb memories suggest that the memory of an event can be particularly clear, owing to the emotional impact it caused. Hirst et al: Memory recall for an emotional event remains accurate for a prolonged period of time, although it is subject to eventually fading, as are most memories. The evidence for flashbulb memory is mixed, and there are other studies that suggest it is a true phenomena and doesn't increase accuracy of recall

Answer 263

It is important for the judge to have a range of evidence when deciding their verdict. By using EWT, please have another source of evidence to put a guilty person in prison. EWT can sometimes save police time. Sometimes, the only an eyewitness may be the only evidence for certain crimes (e.g. rape)

Answer 264

The wrong people will be imprisoned. Police could waste their time analysing the credibility of EWT. People will lose faith in the criminal justice system. Innocent people may be seen as guilty; guilty people may be seen as innocent. This means criminals will still be out in society.

Answer 265

Thompson studied statements by the survivors of the sunken riverboat, Machionette. He found that, despite the emotional trauma, Rico was very accurate after many months. This suggests that lab research may not reflect the conditions actually experienced by witnesses. Participants in lab experiments often don't experience the emotional involvement to what they've been asked to witness - Real life events are often unexpected, confusing and rapid Real witnesses recognise the importance of this statement (as the police get involved, etc) ; Which isn't the same with lab experiments

Answer 266

People may not have a PEN personality, meaning that they may be stable or introverted. This would make them less likely to commit criminal/anti-social behaviour

Answer 267

The environment they were brought in differs the labels that were given to them. For example, a person environment may be adopted, and so even if their biological father is a criminal, the labels they would get would differ to him and so that persons less likely to become a criminal. Not all individuals live up to their expectations/labels given to them, and may engage in Self Denying Prophecy

Answer 268

People's biological makeup is different meaning that we can't just rely on social psychology to explain criminal/anti social behaviour e.g. Personality theory, brain injury, brain trauma, etc

Answer 269

Growing up, we are given labels about us. This alters our way of thinking about ourselves, as well as how others think about us

Answer 270

We observe others doing certain behaviours, and remember that behaviour. We then attempt to reproduce that behaviour ourselves. We do this due to the motivation of getting the benefits that they got from that behaviour (vicarious reinforcement, or to be more like that role model (imitation). We do this from a young age. It's also to do with gender roles- and how men + women react to observations

Answer 271

It's mainly to do with people's biological differences, and how it can influence development

Answer 272

Practice safely and efficiently Practice within legal and ethical boundaries Maintain fitness to practice, Be non-discriminatory, Practice in an autonomous way (independently) and use professional judgement, Be aware of the impact of culture, equality and diversity, Work appropriately with others, Assure quality of practice, Be confidential, Maintain Records appropriately Understanding the key concepts of the professions knowledge base Communicate effectively Reflect on and review practice

Answer 273

Looks at setting up a contract with the client, getting valid consent, focusing on confidentiality, looking at records and record keeping, supervision and working in a multidisciplinary teams

Answer 274

Respect, competence, responsibility, integrity

Answer 275

Assessment, formulation, intervention/implementation, evaluation and research, communication

Answer 276

They use sanctions to maintain the standards. For example relationships with clients, or delaying reports (which can delay treatment) can lead to sanctions

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