Criminal Psychology Flashcards
What is criminal psychology?
Using psychological knowledge to understand anti-social behaviour and what factors contribute to this behaviour.
Why is it important?
- The knowledge is used within legal settings.
> to interrogate people,
> in the courtroom,
> to treat offenders. - Understanding this behaviour can help to reduce it.
What is anti-social behaviour?
Acting in a manner that causes alarm, harassment, or distress to members of the public.
What is important to know about anti-social behaviour?
It’s not a criminal act in itself, however, it can lead to one.
What is crime?
Behaviour that violates social norms, moral values, religious beliefs, and legal boundaries.
> punishable.
What is recidivism?
Reoffending/repeating a crime or behaviour that you’ve been punished for or are receiving treatment for.
What are the 4 biological explanations of crime?
- Brain Injury.
- Amygdala.
- XYY Syndrome.
- Personality Types/Disorders.
How can Brain Injury explain crime?
- Trauma to the brain can affect behaviour depending on what part of the brain has been injured.
> e.g. amygdala=increased impulsiveness, irritability, and aggression.
> Phineas Gage=damage to PFC—became rude, inappropriate, aggressive.
Who conducted a study on this?
Williams et al.
What did they find?
- 60% of 196 prisoners had some form of brain injury.
- Those who had suffered a brain injury entered prison at a younger age.
- Brain injury may contribute to risk-taking behaviour.
What consequences of brain injury did they find?
- Reduced awareness of emotions.
- Loss of memory.
- Poor concentration.
- Poor impulse control.
- Poor judgement.
What does damage to the amygdala cause?
- Impulsivity.
- Irritability.
- Aggression.
What does damage to the orbitofrontal areas cause?
- Loss of self-regulation and inhibition.
- Impulsivity.
- Lack of sensitivity.
- Impulsive reactive aggression.
What does damage to the anterior brain cause?
- Loss of natural bias away from aggression.
Give some strengths of this explanation.
- Blumer et al—case study.
> ASB can arise after frontal lobe injury.
> Orbitofrontal damage leads to poor impulse control, outbursts and decision making. - Williams et al—60% of prisoners had brain damage.
> high reoffending rates.
> led to intervention to manage brain injury—to ensure people receive support—application. - Diaz—insanity as defence for criminal behaviour.
> most common damaged areas are frontal and temporal lobes.
> studies relate to ASB—link.
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
- Case studies look at damage and changed behaviour and link them.
> not strong evidence for cause and effect. - Kreutzer et al.
> 20% of 74 patients were arrested pre-injury—only 10% post-injury. - It’s hard to isolate and identify factors affecting criminal behaviour.
> may be things other than brain injury.
> those with brain injury are likely to be mentally ill or drug and alcohol abusers.
> predisposition to offend.
What are some individual differences concerned with this explanation?
- There’s a lack of research on women.
> what there is suggests similar effects to males.
> males are more likely to engage in physical behaviours that bring about these attributes.
> e.g. sports and fighting. - May be e comorbid factors.
> pre-existing disorders.
> exposed to violence at a young age.
How can the amygdala explain crime/ASB?
- The amygdala directs how we react to threatening and stressful situations.
- It works with the PFC to regulate stress—controlling aggression and social interaction.
> if it can’t respond due to damage it may react more aggressively than needed. - Communicates with the HPA to produce sufficient cortisol levels.
> more cortisol when there’s no threat can lead to stress reactions for a prolonged period.
How can abnormalities in the amygdala lead to increased aggression?
- Damage can lead to over reactions and lack of emotion.
- Smaller amygdala have been found in those with psychopathic tendencies and high aggression.
What are some studies that back up this explanation?
- Charles Whitman—had a tumour pressing on his amygdala.
- Raine—looked at brain structure in NGRI offenders.
> reduced left amygdala activity.
> increased right amygdala activity. - Animal studies—stimulating the amygdala with electrical currents.
> increased aggression.
Give some strengths of this explanation.
- Raine.
> noticed difference in amygdala functioning between NGRI and non-offenders. - It’s scientific and reliable.
> brain scans.
> easily controlled variables. - Pardini.
> 503 6 year old males did a study.
> 20 years later 56 of them who showed aggressive behaviour were brought back.
> persisted even 3 yrs later.
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
- It’s reductionist.
> focuses solely on the amygdala—underplays the complexity of the brain.
> parts of the brain work together. - It’s possible to have amygdala issues and not act psychopathically.
> a neurologist identified a brain as psychopathic—it was his own.
What is XYY Syndrome?
- Occurs only in males.
- Have 47 chromosomes—extra Y one.
- 1 in 1000.
- Doesn’t affect testosterone levels.
- There are physical and behavioural differences.
What are the physical differences?
- Taller and faster growth than siblings.
- More physically active.
What are the social differences?
- Low intelligence—still in normal range.
- Impulsive.
- Behavioural problems.
- Easily distracted.
How can XYY Syndrome explain crime?
- Jacobs et al.
> men with XYY syndrome are more aggressive and lack empathy.
> over representation of men in prison with XYY syndrome—15 in 1000. - XYY males cope less well in difficult circumstances.
> family conflict and stress. - More likely to take part in minor crimes than those with just one Y chromosome.
Give some strengths of this explanation.
- Jacobs et al—15/1000 prisoners had XYY syndrome.
- Adler et al.
> possible that aggressive behaviour is partly determined by genetic factors.
Give some weaknesses of this explanation.
- It’s correlational—doesn’t establish cause and effect.
- Theilgaard.
> no solid evidence that men with XYY syndrome are any more aggressive/criminal than those
with XXY chromosomes. - Ignores environment and upbringing.
> XYY syndrome can lead to bullying and marginalisation. - Doesn’t account for female offenders.
What is Eysenck’s Theory of Personality?
- Criminal personality displays 3 dimensions (PEN):
- High P scores—aggressive, antisocial, cold and egocentric.
- High E scores—sociable, active, lively, and sensation seeking.
- High N scores—anxious, depressed, and react strongly to stress—instability.
- 2 specific personality dimensions:
> extroversion vs introversion.
> neuroticism vs stability.
How does the Eysenck’s Personality Test help identify crime?
- Criminals have a significantly higher score on dimensions of psychoticism, extraversion-introversion, and neuroticism-stability.
Why is a higher score on the extraversion-introversion dimension an indicator of crime?
- Extraverts need more excitement—under-aroused CNS.
> they are thrill-seeking and resistant to conditioning (can’t learn from mistakes).
Why is a high score on the neuroticism-stability dimension an indicator of crime?
- Neurotic people’s nervous system responds strongly to the environment.
Why is a high score on the psychoticism dimension an indicator of crime?
- It represents an aggressive, cold and impersonal character.
Give some strengths of Personality Types as an explanation for crime.
- There is evidence to support existence of a criminal type.
> Boduszek et al—personality traits among re-offenders.
> suggested that a criminal thinking style is correlated with high psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism levels. - Raine found a link between biological factors and offending.
> Took physiological measures from 15 year olds—related them to later criminal status.
> Those with a criminal record 24 years later had more under-arousal in the NS—lower resting heart rate. - Berman and Paisey.
> American juvenile delinquents had a higher score on the psychoticism dimension.
Give some weaknesses of Personality Types as an explanation of crime.
- Correlational—cause and effect can’t be established.
- Lacks explanation—doesn’t explain why or how the traits lead to the crimes people commit.
- Suggests there’s only one type of criminal personality.
> 5 Factor Model adds openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness to Eysenck’s model.
> Criminal behaviour may be more complex than Eysenck suggests.
SOCIAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME
What does the social explanation of crime suggest?
- We are influenced by what we observe in the world.
> it either steers us towards or away from criminal behaviour.
What are the social explanations of crime?
- Labelling.
- Self-fulfilling Prophecy.
What is labelling?
- When terms are used to describe individuals or members of a group.
> based on stereotypes.
Why is labelling bad?
- Labels cause people to make judgements about others.
- It affects how society behaves towards an individual.
- The individual may believe they’re expected to behave in accordance with the label.
What does Becker say about labelling?
- Believes that powerful groups in society create deviance by making up rules and applying them to ‘outsiders.’
- Crime is a social construct.
What is retrospective labelling?
- Going back to the past and reinterpreting behaviour.
> ‘he was always bad.’
What is projective labelling?
- Saying what will happen in the future.
> ‘one of theses days he’s going to do something.’
Give some strengths of labelling as an explanation of crime.
- Besemer et al—411 males aged 8 to again at 50.
> having a convicted parent was a strong predictor of a child being convicted.
> low income and poor housing also predict conviction.
> these types of families are paid more attention—official bias. - Self-fulfilling prophecy—support.
- Reintegrative shaming—applications.
> Lower crime and reoffending rates if shame about crime is communicated.
> offender receives support and is helped back into society.
Give some weaknesses of labelling as an explanation of crime.
- Difficult to say that labelling leads to criminal behaviour.
> other factors contribute.
> can’t isolate and control effects of labelling. - Only a partial explanation.
> implies that without labelling, crime wouldn’t exist.
> someone who has committed a crime but hasn’t been labelled isn’t a criminal. - Doesn’t account for individual differences.
> may choose crime.
What is Self-fulfilling Prophecy?
- When an individual sees themself as the label they’re given.
> starts acting that way.
How can this explain crime?
- Due to the label they are given they may see themselves as that label and act in accordance.
- They may feel stigmatised and isolated from society—turn to groups similar.
- The label gives them little opportunity to change or disprove the label.
> lives up to the expectations.
What is Self-defeating Prophecy?
- The individual may not want to live up to the label.
> do the exact opposite of what’s expected.
Give some strengths of this explanation of crime.
- Rosenthal and Jacobsen.
> students took IQ tests—the teachers were told who’d ‘bloom’ based off of the tests (randomised).
> They took the IQ test again—those who were said to ‘bloom’ had improved IQ scores. - Jahoda.
> A group of boys from Ghana were named according to the day they were born.
> Monday represented ‘quiet’ and ‘placid.’
> Wednesday represented ‘aggressive.’
> Found that those named on Wednesday were more likely to be convicted. - Zebrowitz.
> baby-faced boys were more likely to be delinquent.
> making up for the perception of being ‘weak’ and ‘child-like.’
Give some weaknesses of this explanation of crime.
- Rosenthal and Jacobsen.
> school setting—not crime related. - Too many factors affect the relationship between crime and labelling.
> can’t study it effectively.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
What is social learning theory?
We learn our behaviours from those around us.
> via peers or the media.
What are the 4 mediational processes?
- Attention.
- Retention.
- Reproduction.
- Motivation.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Watching someone else being rewarded for carrying out a behaviour (the crime).
How can social learning theory explain criminal behaviour?
- We see role models perform criminal actions and then copy them.
How does it involve the 4 mediational processes?
- Attention—paying attention to the criminal behaviour.
- Retention—remembering the observed behaviour.
> more difficult for younger children—less developed cognitive ability. - Reproduction—repeating the behaviour.
> need the ability, skills and opportunity to carry it out. - Motivation—internal or external.
> internal=gives you a thrill.
> external=seeing the model be rewarded.
What are the 4 aspects to vicarious reinforcement?
- Modelling effect—copying observed behaviour.
- Eliciting effect—copying observed behaviour—slightly differently.
- Disinhibiting effect—someone who wouldn’t normally do the behaviour does.
- Inhibitory effect—stop doing something because punishment was observed.
Give some strengths of this explanation of crime.
- Experimental evidence.
> Williams—TV exposure to a small community.
> children were twice as aggressive. - Practical applications.
> can be used to rehabilitate offenders—using appropriate role models. - Bandura—boob dolls.
Give some weaknesses of this explanation of crime.
- Only looks at short-term effects of influence.
> assumes they’re going to repeat the behaviour continuously/grow up to be criminals.
> not deterministic. - Doesn’t account for reoffenders.
> suggests that any observed punishment should deter them. - Ignores individual differences.
> doesn’t consider biological factors—brain damage, XYY, amygdala.
COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS
When was this cognitive interview established?
1980s
What is the cognitive interview?
- Method of memory recall to maximise the accuracy of memory.
- Developed as a result of the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.
What are the 4 techniques used?
- Report everything—even if it’s irrelevant.
> can trigger remembrance of other things. - Reinstate context—scene, thoughts, feelings, weather.
- Reverse the order of the event.
- Change the perspective—how would it been seen from different viewpoints?
> prevents effect of schemas.
What is the interview protocol?
- Introduction—establish a relationship between interviewer and interviewee.
- Free recall—80:20
> 80% talking for interviewee and 2% for interviewer.
> no interruption. - Imagery techniques to help recall.
- Information is reviewed.
- Continuation can be carried out if needed.
Give some weaknesses of the cognitive interview.
- Proven that they’re no more accurate than regular interviews.
> Geiselman et al—was an increase in correct recall but not much of a difference compared to regular interviews. - Can be costly.
> require specialist training—takes concentration and training to ensure open and non-leading questions are asked. - Even with training it can be difficult.
> would require regular practice too.
Give some strengths of the cognitive interview.
- Seek to gather the truth instead of confession and testimony.
> Loftus—conducted research into leading questions—has helped move away from aggressive interrogation techniques and leading questions. - Modified cognitive interviews produced more correct details and better accuracy than a normal controlled interview (for all age groups).
> Holliday et al. - Fisher et al—47% more useful than when using standard interviews.
ETHICAL INTERVIEWS
Why is it important to use ethical interviewing techniques?
- It’s the interviewers responsibility to work as ethically as possible.
- More likely to get valid information—prevents the interviewer bringing in own views and judgements.
- There are rights that the interviewee has that need to be adhered to.
What are the ethical standards when conducting a crime related interview?
- Every human is to be treated with dignity (BPS).
- They must be carried out in a non-judgmental way.
- Must not involve coercion.
- No shortcuts—the truth must be the focus.
- Anyone with special needs must be treated with appropriate care.
- No false information or deception can be brought.
What issues did Savage and Milne suggest should be covered in an ethical interview?
P.E.A.C.E
What is the P?
- Planning and preparation.
> Noting aims, objectives, topics and questions before the interview takes place.
What is E?
- Engage and explain.
> build rapport—explain how the interview will take place and what is expected.
