Critical Reasoning Flashcards by emily groves

Mrs. Mason is gifted with psychic powers that enable her to foretell future events. In the past, Mrs. Mason has predicted such actual events as the election of President Clinton, the stock market crash of 1987, and the St. Louis Cardinals’ 1982 World Series victory. These are just a few of Mrs. Mason’s accurate predictions.

The answer to which of the following questions would be most useful in evaluating the strength of the argument above?

A) What percentage of Mrs. Mason’s predictions has come true?

B) Could the election of President Reagan have been predicted without the help of psychic powers?

C) What is the actual mechanism by which Mrs. Mason’s psychic powers are supposed to operate?

D) How long before the events in question did Mrs. Mason make her accurate predictions?

E) Do most scientists accept the idea that the power to predict the future through psychic means really exists?

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In Brazil, side-by-side comparisons of Africanized honeybees and the native honeybees have shown that the Africanized bees are far superior honey producers. Therefore, there is no reason to fear that domestic commercial honey production will decline in the United States if local honeybees are displaced by Africanized honeybees.

Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument EXCEPT:

(A) The honeybees native to Brazil are not of the same variety as those most frequently used in the commercial beekeeping industry in the United States.

(B) Commercial honey production is far more complicated and expensive with Africanized honeybees than it is with the more docile honeybees common in the United States.

(C) If Africanized honeybees replace local honeybees, certain types of ornamental trees will be less effectively pollinated.

(D) In the United States a significant proportion of the commercial honey supply comes from hobby beekeepers, many of whom are likely to abandon beekeeping with the influx of Africanized bees.

(E) The area of Brazil where the comparative study was done is far better suited to the foraging habits of the Africanized honeybees than are most areas of the United States.

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It is more desirable to have some form of socialized medicine than a system of medical care relying on the private sector. Socialized medicine is more broadly accessible than is a private-sector system. In addition, since countries with socialized medicine have a lower infant mortality rate than do countries with a system relying entirely on the private sector, socialized medicine seems to be technologically superior.

Which one of the following best indicates a flaw in the argument about the technological superiority of socialized medicine?

(A) The lower infant mortality rate might be due to the system’s allowing greater access to medical care.

(B) There is no necessary connection between the economic system of socialism and technological achievement.

(D) No list is presented of the countries whose infant mortality statistics are summarized under the two categories, “socialized” and “private-sector.”

(E) The argument presupposes the desirability of socialized medicine, which is what the argument seeks to establish.

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Professor: If both parents have type O blood then their children can only have type O blood. This is a genetic law.
Student: But that’s not true.My father has type B blood and I have type O blood.

The student has most likely misinterpreted the professor’s remark to imply that

(A) only people with type O blood can have children with type O blood

(B) people with type O blood cannot have children with type B blood

(D) what is true of one child in the family must also be true of all children in that family

(E) if both parents have type B blood, then their child will have type B blood

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Five years ago, during the first North American outbreak of the cattle disease CXC, the death rate from the disease was 5 percent of all reported cases, whereas today the corresponding figure is over 18 percent. It is clear, therefore, that during these past 5 years, CXC has increased in virulence.

Which one of the following, if true, most substantially weakens the argument?

(A) Many recent cattle deaths that have actually been caused by CXC have been mistakenly attributed to another disease that mimics the symptoms of CXC.

(B) During the first North American outbreak of the disease, many of the deaths reported to have been caused by CXC were actually due to other causes.

(C) An inoculation program against CXC was recently begun after controlled studies showed inoculation to be 70 percent effective in preventing serious cases of the illness.

(D) Since the first outbreak, farmers have learned to treat mild cases of CXC and no longer report them to veterinarians or authorities.

(E) Cattle that have contracted and survived CXC rarely contract the disease a second time.

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Essayist: It is much less difficult to live an enjoyable life if one is able to make lifestyle choices that accord with one’s personal beliefs and then see those choices accepted by others. It is possible for people to find this kind of acceptance by choosing friends and associates who share many of their personal beliefs. Thus, no one should be denied the freedom to choose the people with whom he or she will associate.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the essayist’s argument?

(A) No one should be denied the freedom to make lifestyle choices that accord with his or her personal beliefs.

(B) One should associate with at least some people who share many of one’s personal beliefs.

(C) If having a given freedom could make it less difficult for someone to live an enjoyable life, then no one should be denied that freedom.

(D) No one whose enjoyment of life depends, at least in part, on friends and associates who share many of the same personal beliefs should be deliberately prevented from having such friends and associates.

(E) One may choose for oneself the people with whom one will associate, if doing so could make it easier to live an enjoyable life

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“DNA fingerprinting” is a recently-introduced biochemical procedure that uses a pattern derived from a person’s genetic material to match a suspect’s genetic material against that of a specimen from a crime scene. Proponents have claimed astronomically high odds against obtaining a match by chance alone. These odds are based on an assumption that there is independence between the different characteristics represented by a single pattern.

Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the claim of the proponents of DNA fingerprinting?

(A) The large amount of genetic material that people share with all other people and with other animals is not included in the DNA fingerprinting procedure.

(B) There is a generally accepted theoretical basis for interpreting the patterns produced by the procedure.

(C) In the whole population there are various different subgroups, within each of which certain sets of genetic characteristics are shared.

(D) The skill required of laboratory technicians performing the DNA fingerprinting procedure is not extraordinary.

(E) In the investigation of certain genetic diseases, the techniques used in DNA fingerprinting have traced the transmission of the diseases among the living members of very large families.

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People who browse the web for medical information often cannot discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery. Much of the quackery is particularly appealing to readers with no medical background because it is usually written more clearly than scientific papers. Thus, people who rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good.

Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires?

(A) People who browse the web for medical information typically do so in an attempt to diagnose their medical conditions.

(B) People who attempt to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good unless they rely exclusively on scientifically valid information.

(C) People who have sufficient medical knowledge to discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery will do themselves no harm if they rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions.

(D) Many people who browse the web assume that information is not scientifically valid unless it is clearly written.

(E) People attempting to diagnose their medical conditions will do themselves more harm than good only if they rely on quackery instead of scientifically valid information

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A tree’s age can be determined by counting the annual growth rings in its trunk. Each ring represents one year, and the ring’s thickness reveals the relative amount of rainfall that year. Archaeologists successfully used annual rings to determine the relative ages of ancient tombs at Pazyryk. Each tomb was constructed from freshly cut logs, and the tombs’ builders were constrained by tradition to use only logs from trees growing in the sacred Pazyryk Valley.

Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the archaeologists’ success in using annual rings to establish the relative ages of the tombs at the Pazyryk site?

(A) The Pazyryk tombs were all robbed during ancient times, but breakage of the tombs’ seals allowed the seepage of water, which soon froze permanently, thereby preserving the tombs’ remaining artifacts.

(B) The Pazyryk Valley, surrounded by extremely high mountains, has a distinctive yearly pattern of rainfall, and so trees growing in the Pazyryk Valley have annual rings that are quite distinct from trees growing in nearby valleys.

(C) Each log in the Pazyryk tombs has among its rings a distinctive sequence of twelve annual rings representing six drought years followed by three rainy years and three more drought years.

(D) The archaeologists determined that the youngest tree used in any of the tombs was 90 years old and that the oldest tree was 450 years old.

(E) All of the Pazyryk tombs contained cultural artifacts that can be dated to roughly 2300 years ago.

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“Physicalists” expect that ultimately all mental functions will be explainable in neurobiological terms. Achieving this goal requires knowledge of neurons and their basic functions, a knowledge of how neurons interact, and a delineation of the psychological faculties to be explained. At present, there is a substantial amount of fundamental knowledge about the basic functions of neurons, and the scope and character of such psychological capacities as visual perception and memory are well understood. Thus, as the physicalists claim, mental functions are bound to receive explanations in neurobiological terms in the near future.

Which one of the following indicates an error in the reasoning in the passage?

(A) The conclusion contradicts the claim of the physicalists.

(B) The passage fails to describe exactly what is currently known about the basic functions of neurons.

(D) The argument does not indicate whether it would be useful to explain mental functions in neurobiological terms.

(E) The passage does not indicate that any knowledge has been achieved about how neurons interact.

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Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) Many more people who currently walk to the library live in central Redville than in central Glenwood.

(B) The number of people living in central Glenwood who would use the library if it were located there is smaller than the number of people living in central Redville who currently use the library.

(C) The number of people using the public library would continue to increase steadily if the library were moved to Glenwood.

(D) Most of the people who currently either drive to the library or take public transportation to reach it would continue to do so if the library were moved to central Glenwood.

(E) Most of the people who currently walk to the library would remain library users if the library were relocated to central Glenwood.

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The crux of creativity resides in the ability to manufacture variations on a theme. If we look at the history of science, for instance, we see that every idea is built upon a thousand related ideas. Careful analysis leads us to understand that what we choose to call a new theme or a new discovery is itself always and without exception some sort of variation, on a deep level, of previous themes.

If all of the statements in the passage are true, each of the following must also be true EXCEPT:

A) A lack of ability to manufacture a variation on a previous theme connotes a lack of creativity

B) No scientific idea is entirely independent of all other ideas.

C) Careful analysis of a specific variation can reveal previous themes of which it is a variation.

D) All great scientific discoverers have been able to manufacture a variation on a theme.

E) Some new scientific discoveries do not represent, on a deep level, a variation on previous themes

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More than a year ago, the city announced that police would crack down on illegally parked cars and that resources would be diverted from writing speeding tickets to ticketing illegally parked cars. But no crackdown has taken place. The police chief claims that resources have had to be diverted from writing speeding tickets to combating the city’s staggering drug problem. Yet the police are still writing as many speeding tickets as ever. Therefore, the excuse about resources being tied up in fighting drug-related crime simply is not true.

The conclusion in the passage depends on the assumption that

(A) every member of the police force is qualified to work on combating the city’s drug problem

(B) drug-related crime is not as serious a problem for the city as the police chief claims it is

(D) the police could be cracking down on illegally parked cars and combating the drug problem without having to reduce writing speeding tickets

(E) the police cannot continue writing as many speeding tickets as ever while diverting resources to combating drug-related crime

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The formation of hurricanes that threaten the United States mainland is triggered by high atmospheric winds off the western coast of Africa.When abundant rain falls in sub-Saharan Africa, hurricanes afterward hit the United States mainland with particular frequency. Therefore, the abundant rains must somehow promote the ability of the winds to form hurricanes.

Which one of the following arguments contains a flaw that is most similar to one in the argument above?

(A) People who exercise vigorously tend to sleep well. Therefore, people who exercise vigorously tend to be healthy.

(B) Cars drive faster on long city blocks than on short city blocks. Long blocks are thus more dangerous for pedestrians than short blocks.

(C) Many people who later become successful entrepreneurs played competitive sports in college. Therefore, playing competitive sports must enhance a person’s entrepreneurial ability.

(D) The blossoms of the chicory plant close up in full sun. Therefore, the chicory plant’s blossoms must open up in the dark.

(E) Events in Eastern Europe can affect the political mood in Central America. Therefore, liberalization in Eastern Europe will lead to liberalization in Central America.

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Most people in the US view neither big nor small business as particularly efficient or dynamic and regard both as providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services. However, most people consistently perceive small business as a force for good in society, whereas big business is perceived as socially responsible only in times of prosperity.

The statements above, if true, would provide the strongest support for which one of the following hypotheses?

(A) Most people in the United States give little thought to the value of business to society.

(B) If big business were more efficient, it would be perceived more favorably by the public generally.

(C) If small business were regarded as being more dynamic, it, too would receive strongly favorable ratings only in times of general prosperity.

D) Even if people did not regard big business as providing consumers with value for their money, they would still regard it as socially responsible in times of general prosperity.

(E) Many people in the United States regard the social responsibility of big business as extending beyond providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services

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It has been claimed that an action is morally good only if it benefits another person and was performed with that intention; whereas an action that harms another person is morally bad either if such harm was intended or if reasonable forethought would have shown that the action was likely to cause harm.

Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited above?

(A) Pamela wrote a letter attempting to cause trouble between Edward and his friend; this action of Pamela’s was morally bad, even though the letter, in fact, had an effect directly opposite from the one intended.

(B) In order to secure a promotion, Jeffrey devoted his own time to resolving a backlog of medical benefits claims; Jeffrey’s action was morally good since it alone enabled Sara’s claim to be processed in time for her to receive much-needed treatment.

(C) Intending to help her elderly neighbor by clearing his walkway after a snowstorm, Teresa inadvertently left ice on his steps; because of this exposed ice, her neighbor had a bad fall, thus showing that morally good actions can have bad consequences.

(D) Marilees, asked by a homeless man for food, gave the man her own sandwich; however, because the man tried to talk while he was eating the sandwich, it caused him to choke, and thus Marilees unintentionally performed a morally bad action.

(E) Jonathan agreed to watch his three-year-old niece while she played but, becoming engrossed in conversation, did not see her run into the street where she was hit by a bicycle; even though he intended no harm, Jonathan’s action was morally bad.

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The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the introduction of new therapeutic agents into the marketplace. Consequently, it plays a critical role in improving health care in the United States.While it is those in the academic and government research communities who engage in the long process of initial discovery and clinical testing of new therapeutic agents, it is the FDA’s role and responsibility to facilitate the transfer of new discoveries from the laboratory to the marketplace. Only after the transfer can important new therapies help patients.

Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage?

(A) The FDA is responsible for ensuring that any therapeutic agent that is marketed is then regulated.

(B) Before new therapeutic agents reach the marketplace they do not help patients.

(D) The FDA should work more closely with researchers to ensure that the quality of therapeutic agents is maintained.

(E) If a new medical discovery has been transferred from the laboratory to the marketplace, it will help patients.

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The great medieval universities had no administrators, yet they endured for centuries. Our university has a huge administrative staff, and we are in serious financial difficulties. Therefore, we should abolish the positions and salaries of the administrators to ensure the longevity of the university.

Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

(A) No airplane had jet engines before 1940, yet airplanes had been flying since 1903. Therefore, jet engines are not necessary for the operation of airplanes.

(B) The novelist’s stories began to be accepted for publication soon after she started using a computer to write them. You have been having trouble getting your stories accepted for publication, and you do not use a computer. To make sure your stories are accepted for publication, then, you should write them with the aid of a computer.

(C) After doctors began using antibiotics, the number of infections among patients dropped drastically. Now, however, resistant strains of bacteria cannot be controlled by standard antibiotics. Therefore, new methods of control are needed.

(D) A bicycle should not be ridden without a helmet. Since a good helmet can save the rider’s life, a helmet should be considered the most important piece of bicycling equipment.

(E) The great cities of the ancient world were mostly built along waterways. Archaeologists searching for the remains of such cities should therefore try to determine where major rivers used to run.

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Archaeologist: The mosaics that were removed from Zeugma, the ancient city now flooded by the runoff from Turkey’s Birecik Dam, should have been left there. We had all the information about them that we needed to draw archaeological conclusions, and future archaeologists studying the site, who may not have access to our records, might be misled by their absence.

Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist’s argument?

(A) The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological.

(B) Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time.

(C) The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location.

(D) Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site.

(E) The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact

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In the United States proven oil reserves — the amount of oil considered extractable from known fields— are at the same level as they were ten years ago. Yet over this same period no new oil fields of any consequence have been discovered, and the annual consumption of domestically produced oil has increased.

Which one of the following, if true, best reconciles the discrepancy described above?

(A) Over the past decade the annual consumption of imported oil has increased more rapidly than that of domestic oil in the United States.

(B) Conservation measures have lowered the rate of growth of domestic oil consumption from what it was a decade ago.

(C) Oil exploration in the United States has slowed due to increased concern over the environmental impact of such exploration.

(D) The price of domestically produced oil has fallen substantially over the past decade.

(E) Due to technological advances over the last decade, much oil previously considered unextractable is now considered extractable

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The argument can most reasonably be interpreted as an objection to which one of the following claims?

(A) The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is one that will never correctly be answered.

(B) Whether or not there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, our understanding of intelligent life is limited.

(C) The question about the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe must be made more precise if we hope to answer it correctly.

(D) The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is so imprecise as to be meaningless.

(E) The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is one we should not spend our time trying to answer.

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A medical journal used a questionnaire survey to determine whether a particular change in its format would increase its readership. Sixty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire supported that change. On the basis of this outcome, the decision was made to introduce the new format.

Which one of the following, if it were determined to be true, would provide the best evidence that the journal’s decision will have the desired effect?

(A) Of the readers who received questionnaires, 90% returned them.

(B) Other journals have based format changes on survey results.

(C) The percentage of surveyed readers who like the format change was almost the same as the percentage of the entire potential readership who would like the format change.

(D) It was determined that the new format would be less costly than the old format.

(E) 90% readers who were dissatisfied with the old format and only 50% of the readers who liked the old format returned their questionnaires

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Substances with similar scents often have vastly different molecular structures. The scents of marzipan and cyanide, for example, both contain strong hints of almond. The molecular structures of the substances, however, make them appropriate for nearly opposite uses: marzipan is often found in gourmet desserts, and cyanide is a powerful poison. Which of the following conclusions can most reasonably be drawn from information in the passage above? (A) Molecular structures of substances with similar scents are always vastly different. (B) Molecular structures of unknown substances can often be predicted based on their scents. (C) Scents of unknown substances can not be accurately predicted based only on their molecular structure. (D) Scents of poisonous substances are usually similar to scents of non-poisonous foods. (E) Marzipan and cyanide have similar scents, and can therefore be assumed to contain similar elements

A population of game ducks at a western lake contains 55 males to every 45 females, while a population of game ducks at an eastern lake contains 65 males for every 35 females. Among those ducks that have not yet bred there are only slightly more males than females, but among older ducks the number of males greatly exceeds the number of females. Because there are appreciably more males among adult ducks than among young ducks, we can infer that the greater the disparity in overall sex ratios, the greater the percentage of older male ducks in the population. Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? (A) The population of game ducks at the western lake contains a lower % adult males than the population at the eastern lake. (B) The population of game ducks at the eastern lake contains a higher % nonadult game ducks than the population at the western lake contains. (C) The total number of male game ducks is higher in the eastern lake’s population than in the western lake’s population. (D) The number of nonadult ducks hatched in a breeding season is higher in the eastern lake’s population than in the western lake’s population. (E) Adult female game ducks outnumber nonadult female game ducks in the eastern lake’s population

Philosopher: To explain the causes of cultural phenomena, a social scientist needs data about several societies: one cannot be sure, for example, that a given political structure is brought about only by certain ecological or climatic factors unless one knows that there are no similarly structured societies not subject to those factors, and no societies that, though subject to those factors, are not so structured. The claim that to explain the causes of cultural phenomena, a social scientist needs data about several societies plays which one of the following roles in the philosopher’s reasoning? (A) It describes a problem that the philosopher claims is caused by the social scientist’s need for certainty. (B) It is a premise used to support a general theoretical claim about the nature of cause and effect relationships. (C) It is a general hypothesis that is illustrated with an example showing that there is a causal relationship between political structures and environmental conditions. (D) It is a dilemma that, it is argued, is faced by every social scientist because of the difficulty of determining whether a given cultural phenomenon is the cause or the effect of a given factor. (E) It is a claim that the philosopher attempts to justify by appeal to the requirements for establishing the existence of one kind of causal relationship.

The deviation of atomic numbers from mass numbers is given as a number that directly corresponds to the severity of the reactions of an element’s isotopes to nuclear fission and fusion. Nuclear fission produces energy in elements heavier than iron, and absorbs energy in elements lighter than iron. If nuclear fusion has an effect on isotopes that is equal to the negative value of fission’s effect on the isotope, then it must be true that A elements lighter than iron never produce energy B nuclear fission and fusion do not affect iron’s isotopes C the deviation of an element’s atomic number from its mass number is a constant D the deviation of iron’s atomic number from its mass number is zero E elements heavier than iron do not respond to nuclear fusion

The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is certainly imprecise, because we are not sure how different from us something might be and still count as “intelligent life.” Yet we cannot just decide to define “intelligent life” in some more precise way since it is likely that we will find and recognize intelligent life elsewhere in the universe only if we leave our definitions open to new, unimagined possibilities. The passage, if seen as an objection to an antecedent claim, challenges that claim by (A) showing the claim to be irrelevant to the issue at hand (B) citing examples that fail to fit a proposed definition of “intelligent life” (C) claiming that “intelligent life” cannot be adequately defined (D) arguing that the claim, if acted on, would be counterproductive (E) maintaining that the claim is not supported by the available evidence

A survey of alumni of the class of 1960 at Aurora University yielded puzzling results.When asked to indicate their academic rank, half of the respondents reported that they were in the top quarter of the graduating class in 1960. Which one of the following most helps account for the apparent contradiction above? (A) A disproportionately large number of highranking alumni responded to the survey. (B) Few, if any, respondents were mistaken about their class rank. (C) Not all the alumni who were actually in the top quarter responded to the survey. (D) Almost all of the alumni who graduated in 1960 responded to the survey. (E) Academic rank at Aurora University was based on a number of considerations in addition to average grades.

Streptococcus mutans, the bacteria that causes tooth decay, is transmitted almost exclusively from mother to child, which allows it to be traced back thousands of years via its DNA to one of several distinct lineages. This would not be possible if it were transmitted more easily from person to person. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage above? A Mothers can be blamed for tooth decay in children. B Streptococcus mutans can be classified according to lineage. C If it were transmitted from father to child, streptococcus mutans would not be traceable. D Bacteria cannot be traced if it has no DNA. E Tooth decay only occurs among humans

Clean-burning coal power plants represent an improvement over traditional coal power plants because they are more efficient at capturing greenhouse gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere. Although the large coal deposits of the Eastern United States make coal an economically cheap resource, the environmental damage caused by current methods of extraction makes coal an environmentally unwise choice as an energy source. If the statements above are true, which of the following conclusions can be most properly drawn about clean-burning coal power plants? (A) Clean-burning coal power plants can prevent one type of environmental damage while indirectly causing another. (B) Environmental groups will protest the construction of more clean-burning coal power plants because they capture insufficient amounts of greenhouse gases. (C) In the long-term, the money saved by using inexpensive coal as an energy source will outweigh the cost of building more clean-burning power plants. (D) Most new clean-burning coal power plants will be built in the Eastern United States, where supplies of cheap coal are plentiful. (E) Most traditional coal power plants, especially those in the Eastern United States, will be demolished to make room for newer, clean-burning plants

“If the forest continues to disappear at its present pace, the koala will approach extinction,” said the biologist. “So all that is needed to save the koala is to stop deforestation,” said the politician. Which one of the following statements is consistent with the biologist’s claim but not with the politician’s claim? (A) Deforestation continues and the koala becomes extinct. (B) Deforestation is stopped and the koala becomes extinct. (C) Reforestation begins and the koala survives. (D) Deforestation is slowed and the koala survives. (E) Deforestation is slowed and the koala approaches extinction.

Paleomycologists, scientists who study ancient forms of fungi, are invariably acquainted with the scholarly publications of all other paleomycologists. Professor Mansour is acquainted with the scholarly publications of Professor DeAngelis, who is a paleomycologist. Therefore, Professor Mansour must also be a paleomycologist. The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? (A) When a flight on Global Airlines is delayed, all connecting Global Airlines flights are also delayed so that the passengers can make their connections. Since Frieda’s connecting flight on Global was delayed, her first flight must have also been a delayed Global Airlines flight. (B) Any time that one of Global Airlines’ local ticket agents misses a shift, the other agents on that shift need to work harder than usual. Since none of Global’s local ticket agents missed a shift last week, the airline’s local ticket agents did not have to work harder than usual last week. (C) Any time the price of fuel decreases, Global Airlines’ expenses decrease and its income is unaffected. The price of fuel decreased several times last year. Therefore, Global Airlines must have made a profit last year. (D) All employees of Global Airlines can participate in its retirement plan after they have been with the company a year or more. Gavin has been with Global Airlines for three years. We can therefore be sure that he participates in Global’s retirement plan. (E) Whenever a competitor of Global Airlines reduces its fares, Global must follow suit or lose passengers. Global carried more passengers last year than it did the year before. Therefore, Global must have reduced its fares last year to match reductions in its competitors’ fares.

The press reports on political campaigns these days as if they were chess games. One candidate’s campaign advisor makes a move; the other candidate’s advisor makes a countermove. The press then reports on the campaign advisors and not on the candidates. The losers in this chess game are the voters. They are deprived of the information they need to make informed decisions because the press is ignoring substantive policy issues and reporting only on the process of the campaign. It is clear that the campaign advisors should stay out of the limelight and let the press report on the most revealing positions on substantive issues the candidates have taken. Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument in the passage depends? (A) Chess is the most appropriate analogy to reporting on political campaigns. (B) The candidates in the election are taking positions on substantive policy issues. (C) How the press reports politics determines the substantive issues in the campaign. (D) The voters are not paying enough attention to the election to be able to make informed decisions. (E) There is no difference between reporting on the political process and reporting on substantive issues.

Armchair anthropologists of the Victorian Era rarely visited the lands in whose cultures they proclaimed themselves experts, and were as likely as not to call the inhabitants “savages.” By contrast, contemporary anthropologists, who are not taken seriously unless they have lived for a time among the people they study, are likely to use the more enlightened term “indigenous people.” The author’s assertion about the superiority of contemporary anthropologists rests on which of the following assumptions about the word enlightened? A. Victorian Era anthropologists often considered themselves enlightened even though they had never lived among the cultures they studied. B. To be enlightened requires spending time among the people being studied. C. The goal of contemporary anthropology is to become enlightened. D. A person who has been enlightened can not, by definition, be called a savage. E. Anthropologists must be enlightened before they are properly prepared to spend time among the people they study.

M: It is almost impossible to find a person between the ages of 85 and 90 who primarily uses the left hand. Q: Seventy to ninety years ago, however, children were punished for using their left hands to eat or to write and were forced to use their right hands. Q’s response serves to counter any use by M of the evidence about 85 to 90 year olds in support of which one of the following hypotheses? (A) Being born right-handed confers a survival advantage. (B) Societal attitudes toward handedness differ at different times. (C) Forcing a person to switch from a preferred hand is harmless. (D) Handedness is a product of both genetic predisposition and social pressures. (E) Physical habits learned in school often persist in old age.

Jones: Prehistoric wooden tools found in South America have been dated to 13,000 years ago. Although scientists attribute these tools to peoples whose ancestors first crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska, this cannot be correct. In order to have reached a site so far south, these peoples must have been migrating southward well before 13,000 years ago. However, no such tools dating to before 13,000 years ago have been found anywhere between Alaska and South America. Smith: Your evidence is inconclusive. Those tools were found in peat bogs, which are rare in the Americas. Wooden tools in soils other than peat bogs usually decompose within only a few years. Smith responds to Jones by (A) citing several studies that invalidate Jones’s conclusion (B) accusing Jones of distorting the scientists’ position (C) disputing the accuracy of the supporting evidence cited by Jones (D) showing that Jones’s evidence actually supports the denial of Jones’s conclusion (E) challenging an implicit assumption in Jones’s argument

Public reports by national commissions, governors’ conferences, and leadership groups have stressed the great need for better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry. If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, the need is undeniable. If there is such a need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs, then all of our new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation. If all of the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true? (A) If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation. (B) If new teachers are prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness. (C) If there is better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness. (D) If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then there is no need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs. (E) Public reports from various groups and commissions have stressed the need for a more international orientation in the education of teachers.

The view that every person is concerned exclusively with her or his own self-interest implies that government by consent is impossible. Thus, social theorists who believe that people are concerned only with their self‑interest evidently believe that aspiring to democracy is futile, since democracy is not possible in the absence of government by consent. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument (A) infers merely from the fact of someone’s holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief (B) infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group (C) infers that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole (D) attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory (E) fails to consider that, even if an argument’s conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true

With the exception of Professor Kirschner, all faculty in the History department are either tenured or under thirty-five. From which of the following can the statement above most correctly be inferred? A Professor Kirschner is the only professor in the History department who is not tenured. B If a professor in the History department is under thirty-five or tenured, then he or she is not Professor Kirchner. C Professor Kirchner is the only professor in the History department who is over thirty-five and lacks tenure. D If a professor is in the History department, then he or she is either tenured or under thirty-five, or is Professor Kirschner. E Professor Kirschner cannot be a member of the History department.

Modern physicians often employ laboratory tests, in addition to physical examinations, in order to diagnose diseases accurately. Insurance company regulations that deny coverage for certain laboratory tests therefore decrease the quality of medical care provided to patients. Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above? (A) Physical examinations and the uncovered laboratory tests together provide a more accurate diagnosis of many diseases than do physical examinations alone. (B) Many physicians generally oppose insurance company regulations that, in order to reduce costs, limit the use of laboratory tests. (C) Many patients who might benefit from the uncovered laboratory tests do not have any form of health insurance. (D) There are some illnesses that experienced physicians can diagnose accurately from physical examination alone. (E) Laboratory tests are more costly to perform than are physical examinations.

When 100 people who have not used cocaine are tested for cocaine use, on average only 5 will test positive. By contrast, of every 100 people who have used cocaine 99 will test positive. Thus, when a randomly chosen group of people is tested for cocaine use, the vast majority of those who test positive will be people who have used cocaine. A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument: (A) attempts to infer a value judgment from purely factual premises (B) attributes to every member of the population the properties of the average member of the population (C) fails to take into account what proportion of the population have used cocaine (D) ignores the fact that some cocaine users do not test positive (E) advocates testing people for cocaine use when there is no reason to suspect that they have used cocaine

Zoologist: Every domesticated large mammal species now in existence was domesticated thousands of years ago. Since those days, people undoubtedly tried innumerable times to domesticate each of the wild large mammal species that seemed worth domesticating. Clearly, therefore, most wild large mammal species in existence today either would be difficult to domesticate or would not be worth domesticating. The zoologist’s argument requires the assumption that (A) in spite of the difficulties encountered, at one time or another people have tried to domesticate each wild large mammal species (B) it is not much easier today to domesticate wild large mammal species than it was in the past (C) not all of the large mammal species that were domesticated in the past are still in existence (D) the easier it is to domesticate a wild large mammal species, the more worthwhile it is to do so (E) of all the domesticated large mammal species in existence today, the very first to be domesticated were the easiest to domesticate

People who take what others regard as a ridiculous position should not bother to say, “I mean every word!” For either their position truly is ridiculous, in which case insisting that they are serious about it only exposes them to deeper embarrassment, or else their position has merit, in which case they should meet disbelief with rational argument rather than with assurances of their sincerity. Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? (A) A practice that has been denounced as a poor practice should not be defended on the grounds that “this is how we have always done it.” If the practice is a poor one, so much the worse that it has been extensively used; if it is not a poor one, there must be a better reason for engaging in it than inertia. (B) People who are asked why they eat some of the unusual foods they eat should not answer, “because that is what I like.” This sort of answer will sound either naive or evasive and thus will satisfy no one. (C) People whose taste in clothes is being criticized should not reply, “Every penny I spent on these clothes I earned honestly.” For the issue raised by the critics is not how the money was come by but rather whether it was spent wisely. (D) Scholars who champion unpopular new theories should not assume that the widespread rejection of their ideas shows that they “must be on the right track.” The truth is that few theories of any consequence are either wholly right or wholly wrong and thus there is no substitute for patient work in ascertaining which parts are right. (E) People who set themselves goals that others denounce as overly ambitious do little to silence their critics if they say, “I can accomplish this if anyone can.” Rather, those people should either admit that their critics are right or not dignify the criticism with any reply.

Computer scientist: For several decades, the number of transistors on new computer microchips, and hence the microchips’ computing speed, has doubled about every 18 months. However, from the mid-1990s into the next decade, each such doubling in a microchip’s computing speed was accompanied by a doubling in the cost of producing that microchip. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the computer scientist’s statements? (A) The only effective way to double the computing speed of computer microchips is to increase the number of transistors per microchip. (B) From the mid-1990s into the next decade, there was little if any increase in the retail cost of computers as a result of the increased number of transistors on microchips. (C) For the last several decades, computer engineers have focused on increasing the computing speed of computer microchips without making any attempt to control the cost of producing them. (D) From the mid-1990s into the next decade, a doubling in the cost of fabricating new computer microchips accompanied each doubling in the number of transistors on those microchips. (E) It is unlikely that engineers will ever be able to increase the computing speed of microchips without also increasing the cost of producing them

A recent poll showed that almost half of the city’s residents believe that Mayor Walker is guilty of ethics violations. Surprisingly, however, 52% of those surveyed judged Walker’s performance as mayor to be good or excellent, which is no lower than it was before anyone accused him of ethics violations. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the surprising fact stated above? (A) Almost all of the people who believe that Walker is guilty of ethics violations had thought, even before he was accused of those violations, that his performance as mayor was poor. (B) In the time since Walker was accused of ethics violations, there has been an increase in the percentage of city residents who judge the performance of Walker’s political opponents to be good or excellent. (C) About a fifth of those polled did not know that Walker had been accused of ethics violations. (D) Walker is currently up for reelection, and anticorruption groups in the city have expressed support for Walker’s opponent. (E) Walker has defended himself against the accusations by arguing that the alleged ethics violations were the result of honest mistakes by his staff members

A work of architecture, if it is to be both inviting and functional for public use, must be unobtrusive, taking second place to the total environment. Modern architects, plagued by egoism, have violated this precept. They have let their strong personalities take over their work, producing buildings that are not functional for public use. Which one of the statements below follows logically from the statements in the passage? (A) Unobtrusive architecture is both inviting and functional. (B) Modern architects who let their strong personalities take over their work produce buildings that are not unobtrusive. (C) An architect with a strong personality cannot produce buildings that function well for the public. (D) A work of architecture that takes second place to the environment functions well for public use. (E) A work of architecture cannot simultaneously express its architect’s personality and be functional for public use.

Like a number of other articles, Ian Raghnall’s article relied on a recent survey in which over half the couples applying for divorces listed “money” as a major problem in their marriages. Raghnall’s conclusion from the survey data is that financial problems are the major problem in marriages and an important factor contributing to the high divorce rate. Yet couples often express other types of marital frustrations in financial terms. Despite appearances, the survey data do not establish that financial problems are the major problem in contemporary marriages. Which one of the following sentences best expresses the main point of the passage? (A) Financial problems are not an important factor contributing to the divorce rate. (B) Marital problems are more easily solved by marriage counselors than by married couples on their own. (C) The conclusion drawn in Raghnall’s article is inadequately justified. (D) Over half the couples applying for divorces listed money as a major problem in their marriages. (E) Many articles wrongly claim that financial problems are the major factor contributing to the divorce rate.

Fares on the city-run public buses in Greenville are subsidized by city tax revenues, but among the beneficiaries of the low fares are many people who commute from outside the city to jobs in Greenville. Some city councilors argue that city taxes should be used primarily to benefit the people who pay them, and therefore that bus fares should be raised enough to cover the cost of the service. Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument advanced by the city councilors EXCEPT: (A) Many businesses whose presence in the city is beneficial to the city’s taxpayers would relocate outside the city if public-transit fare were more expensive. (B) By providing commuters with economic incentives to drive to work, higher transit fares would worsen air pollution in Greenville and increase the cost of maintaining the city’s streets. (C) Increasing transit fares would disadvantage those residents of the city whose low incomes make them exempt from city taxes, and all city councilors agree that these residents should be able to take advantage of city-run services. (D) Voters in the city, many of whom benefit from the low transit fares, are strongly opposed to increasing local taxes. (E) People who work in Greenville and earn wages above the nationally mandated minimum all pay the city wage tax of 5 percent

Whenever a major political scandal erupts before an election and voters blame the scandal on all parties about equally, virtually all incumbents, from whatever party, seeking reelection are returned to office. However, when voters blame such a scandal on only one party, incumbents from that party are likely to be defeated by challengers from other parties. The proportion of incumbents who seek reelection is high and remarkably constant from election to election. If the voters’ reactions are guided by a principle, which one of the following principles would best account for the contrast in reactions described above? (A) Whenever one incumbent is responsible for one major political scandal and another incumbent is responsible for another, the consequences for the two incumbents should be the same. (B) When a major political scandal is blamed on incumbents from all parties, that judgment is more accurate than any judgment that incumbents from only one party are to blame. (C) Incumbents who are rightly blamed for a major political scandal should not seek reelection, but if they do, they should not be returned to office. (D) Major political scandals can practically always be blamed on incumbents, but whether those incumbents should be voted out of office depends on who their challengers are. (E) When major political scandals are less the responsibility of individual incumbents than of the parties to which they belong, whatever party was responsible must be penalized when possible.

Although it’s a common perception that philosophy has no practical application to the real world, HISTORY SUGGESTS OTHERWISE. In fact, the word “philosophy” itself derives from the Greek roots philos, meaning “love”, and sophos, which means “wisdom”. Taken together, THE WORD PHILOSOPHY LITERALLY MEANS "LOVE OF WISDOM" The bolded phrases play which of the following roles in the argument above? A The first phrase states the conclusion and the second phrase offers support for that conclusion. B The first phrase introduces evidence supporting a conclusion, and the second phrase contains that evidence. C The first phrase contains an objection to a common perception, and the second phrase offers support for that objection. D The first phrase states a premise on which the conclusion is based, and the second phrase offers a supporting definition. E The first phrase defines a word crucial to the argument, and the second phrase states the conclusion.

Millions of homes are now using low-energy lighting, but millions more have still to make the switch, a fact that the government and the home lighting industry are eager to change. Although low-wattage bulbs cost more per bulb than normal bulbs, their advantages to the homeowner are enormous, and therefore everyone should use low-wattage bulbs. Information about which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument? (A) the actual cost of burning low-wattage bulbs compared to that of burning normal bulbs (B) the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs (C) the specific cost of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb (D) the opinion of current users of low-wattage bulbs as to their effectiveness (E) the average life of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb

Dialectology, a sub-field of linguistics that studies variations in a language, began as an effort to produce dialect maps, in which lines were drawn on a map indicating different dialect areas. In the late 1920s, dialectologists became more concerned with social factors and began taking social variation into account in their studies of dialect. This occurred as a result of structuralist developments in the study of language. Which of the following statements, if true, would most strengthen the argument above? A After 1930, linguists no longer considered dialect maps useful in the study of dialect. B If not for structuralist developments in the study of language, psychologists may never have incorporated linguistic factors into their studies. C Structuralism is a linguistic approach that focuses on the relationships between elements and the social structures that result. D Some linguists consider dialectology is a social science due to its focus on social factors. E Though by the mid 20th century structuralism was one of the most popular and widespread academic approaches, in the 1930s it was still barely known.

Alice: Quotas on automobile imports to the United States should be eliminated. Then domestic producers would have to compete directly with Japanese manufacturers and would be forced to produce higher-quality cars. Such competition would be good for consumers. David: You fail to realize, Alice, that quotas on automobile imports are pervasive worldwide. Since Germany, Britain, and France have quotas, so should the United States. Which one of the following most accurately characterizes David’s response to Alice’s statement? (A) David falsely accuses Alice of contradicting herself. (B) David unfairly directs his argument against Alice personally. (C) David uncovers a hidden assumption underlying Alice’s position. (D) David takes a position that is similar to the one Alice has taken. (E) David fails to address the reasons Alice cites in favor of her conclusion.

If that insect is a bee, it can only sting once. It only did sting once. So it is a bee. Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? (A) Spring is here. It has to be, because when it is spring, I cannot stop sneezing; and I just sneezed. (B) When the sky is clear, the atmospheric pressure is high. At the moment, it is clearing up, so the atmospheric pressure is bound to be high soon. (C) Old and brittle paintings are always moved with extreme care. That particular painting is never moved with extreme care. So it must not be old and brittle. (D) Only one more thunderstorm was needed to ruin that roof. But the roof was still fine a month later. There must not have been any thunderstorms over that month. (E) To survive in the wild requires physical stamina like Mark’s. All the same,Mark’s fear of spiders would prevent his survival.

Recent research in neuropsychology suggests that laughter is less a response to humor than a kind of involuntary social signal. In one study, a social scientist observed instances of laughter in diverse settings, and found that 80 to 90 percent occurred after straight lines such as “talk to you later” and “I know”. The argument above depends on which of the following unstated assumptions? A Involuntary social signals can be studied with observational methods. B The diverse settings in the study included diverse populations as well. C Statements can be removed from context without any loss of meaning. D People laugh after straight lines because they believe they are expected to. E Humor and laughter are one and the same.

The qwerty keyboard became the standard keyboard with the invention of the typewriter and remains the standard for typing devices today. If an alternative known as the Dvorak keyboard were today’s standard, typists would type significantly faster. Nevertheless, it is not practical to switch to the Dvorak keyboard because the cost to society of switching, in terms of time, money, and frustration, would be greater than the benefits that would be ultimately gained from faster typing. The example above best illustrates which one of the following propositions? (A) Often it is not worthwhile to move to a process that improves speed if it comes at the expense of accuracy. (B) People usually settle on a standard because that standard is more efficient than any alternatives. (C) People often remain with an entrenched standard rather than move to a more efficient alternative simply because they dislike change. (D) The emotional cost associated with change is a factor that sometimes outweighs financial considerations. (E) The fact that a standard is already in wide use can be a crucial factor in making it a more practical choice than an alternative

Mayor of Plainsville: In order to help the economy of Plainsville, I am using some of our tax revenues to help bring a major highway through the town and thereby attract new business to Plainsville. Citizens’ group: You must have interests other than our economy in mind. If you were really interested in helping our economy, you would instead allocate the revenues to building a new business park, since it would bring in twice the business that your highway would. Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would most help the citizens’ group to justify drawing its conclusion that the mayor has in mind interests other than Plainsville’s economy? (A) Anyone really pursuing a cause will choose the means that that person believes will advance the cause the farthest. (B) Any goal that includes helping the economy of a community will require public revenues in order to be achieved. (C) Anyone planning to use resources collected from a group must consult the members of the group before using the resources. (D) Any cause worth committing oneself to must include specific goals toward which one can work. (E) Any cause not pursued by public officials, if it is to be pursued at all, must be pursued by members of the community.

The government of Zunimagua has refused to schedule free elections, release political prisoners, or restore freedom of speech; therefore, no more financial aid from the United States should be provided to Zunimagua. Which of the following is an assumption made in the argument above? A) Withdrawal of U.S. aid from Zunimagua will force a change in the policies of its government. B) The people of Zunimagua would be better off if their present despotic government were overthrown. C) The government of Zunimagua is dependent on continued U.S. aid for its existence. D) U.S. aid should be given only to countries willing to adopt policies in line with U.S. interests and goals. E) U.S. aid should be withdrawn from any country that refuses to operate its government along democratic lines

As air-breathing mammals, whales must once have lived on land and needed hind limbs capable of supporting the mammals’ weight.Whales have the bare remnants of a pelvis. If animals have a pelvis, we expect them to have hind limbs. A newly discovered fossilized whale skeleton has very fragile hind limbs that could not have supported the animal’s weight on land. This skeleton had a partial pelvis. If the statements above are true, which one of the following, if also true, would most strongly support the conclusion that the fragile hind limbs are remnants of limbs that land-dwelling whales once had? (A) Whale bones older than the fossilized hind limbs confirm that ancient whales had full pelvises. (B) No skeletons of ancient whales with intact hind limbs capable of supporting the mammals’ weight have ever been found. (C) Scientists are uncertain whether the apparently nonfunctioning limbs of other early mammals derived from once-functioning limbs of their ancestors. (D) Other large-bodied mammals like seals and sea lions maneuver on beaches and rocky coasts without fully functioning hind limbs. (E) Some smaller sea-dwelling mammals, such as modern dolphins, have no visible indications of hind limbs.

Political philosopher: A just system of taxation would require each person’s contribution to correspond directly to the amount the society as a whole contributes to serve that person’s interests. For purposes of taxation, wealth is the most objective way to determine how well the society has served the interest of any individual. Therefore, each person should be taxed solely in proportion to her or his income. The flawed reasoning in the political philosopher’s argument is most similar to that in which one of the following? (A) Cars should be taxed in proportion to the danger that they pose. The most reliable measure of this danger is the speed at which a car can travel. Therefore, cars should be taxed only in proportion to their ability to accelerate quickly. (B) People should be granted autonomy in proportion to their maturity. A certain psychological test was designed to provide an objective measure of maturity. Therefore, those scoring above high school level on the test should be granted complete autonomy. (C) Everyone should pay taxes solely in proportion to the benefits they receive from government. Many government programs provide subsidies for large corporations. Therefore, a just tax would require corporations to pay a greater share of their income in taxes than individual citizens pay. (D) Individuals who confer large material benefits upon society should receive high incomes. Those with high incomes should pay correspondingly high taxes. Therefore, we as a society should place high taxes on activities that confer large benefits upon society. (E) Justice requires that health care be given in proportion to each individual’s need. Therefore, we need to ensure that the most seriously ill hospital patients are given the highest priority for receiving care

Evan: I am a vegetarian because I believe it is immoral to inflict pain on animals to obtain food. Some vegetarians who share this moral reason nonetheless consume some seafood, on the grounds that it is not known whether certain sea creatures can experience pleasure or pain. But if it is truly wrong to inflict needless suffering, we should extend the benefit of the doubt to sea animals and refrain from eating seafood. Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated by Evan’s criticism of vegetarians who eat seafood? (A) I do not know if I have repaid Farah the money she lent me for a movie ticket. She says that she does not remember whether or not I repaid her. In order to be sure that I have repaid her, I will give her the money now. (B) It is uncertain whether all owners of the defective vehicles know that their vehicles are being recalled by the manufacturer. Thus, we should expect that some vehicles that have been recalled have not been returned. (C) I am opposed to using incentives such as reduced taxes to attract businesses to our region. These incentives would attract businesses interested only in short-term profits. Such businesses would make our region’s economy less stable, because they have no long-term commitment to the community. (D) Updating our computer security system could lead to new contracts. The present system has no problems, but we could benefit from emphasizing a state-of-the-art system in new proposals. If we do not get new customers, the new system could be financed through higher fees for current customers. (E) Isabel Allende lived through the tragic events of her country’s recent history; no doubt her novels have been inspired by her memories of those events. Yet Allende’s characters are hopeful and full of joy, indicating that Allende’s own view of life has not been negatively marked by her experiences

The more television children watch, the less competent they are in mathematical knowledge. More than a third of children in the United States watch television for more than five hours a day; in South Korea the figure is only 7 percent. But whereas less than 15 percent of children in the United States understand advanced measurement and geometric concepts, 40 percent of South Korean children are competent in these areas. Therefore, if United States children are to do well in mathematics, they must watch less television. Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends? (A) Children in the United States are less interested in advanced measurement and geometric concepts than are South Korean children. (B) South Korean children are more disciplined about doing schoolwork than are children in the United States. (C) Children who want to do well in advanced measurement and geometry will watch less television. (D) A child’s ability in advanced measurement and geometry increases if he or she watches less than one hour of television a day. (E) The instruction in advanced measurement and geometric concepts available to children in the United States is not substantially worse than that available to South Korean children.

Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of bean plants or other legumes produce fixed nitrogen, which is one of the essential plant nutrients and which for nonlegume crops, such as wheat, normally must be supplied by applications of nitrogen-based fertilizer. So if biotechnology succeeds in producing wheat strains whose roots will play host to Rhizobium bacteria, the need for artificial fertilizers will be reduced. The argument above makes which one of the following assumptions? (A) Biotechnology should be directed toward producing plants that do not require artificial fertilizer. (B) Fixed nitrogen is currently the only soil nutrient that must be supplied by artificial fertilizer for growing wheat crops. (C) There are no naturally occurring strains of wheat or other grasses that have Rhizobium bacteria living in their roots. (D) Legumes are currently the only crops that produce their own supply of fixed nitrogen. (E) Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of wheat would produce fixed nitrogen.

Pamela: Business has an interest in enabling employees to care for children, because those children will be the customers, employees, and managers of the future. Therefore, businesses should adopt policies, such as day-care benefits, that facilitate parenting. Lee: No individual company, though, will be patronized, staffed, and managed only by its own employees’ children, so it would not be to a company’s advantage to provide such benefits to employees when other companies do not. In which one of the following pairs consisting of argument and objection does the objection function most similarly to the way Lee’s objection functions in relation to Pamela’s argument? (A) New roads will not serve to relieve this area’s traffic congestion, because new roads would encourage new construction and generate additional traffic. Objection: Failure to build new roads would mean that traffic congestion would strangle the area even earlier. (B) Humanity needs clean air to breathe, so each person should make an effort to avoid polluting the air. Objection: The air one person breathes is affected mainly by pollution caused by others, so it makes no sense to act alone to curb air pollution. (C) Advertised discounts on products draw customers’ attention to the products, so advertised discounts benefit sales. Objection: Customers already planning to purchase a product accelerate buying to take advantage of advertised discounts, and thus subsequent sales suffer. (D) If people always told lies, then no one would know what the truth was, so people should always tell the truth. Objection: If people always told lies, then everyone would know that the truth was the opposite of what was said. (E) Human social institutions have always changed, so even if we do not know what those changes will be, we do know that the social institutions of the future will differ from those of the past. Objection:The existence of change in the past does not ensure that there will always be change in the future.

The life expectancy of people living below the poverty line in the United States is seven years shorter than the national average. A public health advocate argues that this is due to the fact that the poor cannot afford preventative medical care and often live in substandard housing where harmful substances such as lead paint and asbestos are common. An expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line is an ultimately more cost-efficient way of raising life expectancy, because preventative care will forestall many expensive emergency treatments. Which of the following, if true, accurately identifies the most significant flaw in the public health advocate’s argument that health insurance services for those below the poverty line should be expanded? A. The public health advocate does not provide sufficient information about the amount of money that will be saved by preventing emergency medical treatments. B. The expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line will not address health problems caused by substandard housing. C. Many health care providers are especially concerned with treating complications caused by exposure to lead paint and asbestos. D. Census results do not clearly indicate what percentage of the population falls below the poverty line. E. Lead paint and asbestos, though they cause medical problems, have not been conclusively proven to shorten life expectancy

In a new police program, automobile owners in some neighborhoods whose cars are not normally driven between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. can display a special decal in the cars’ windows and authorize police to stop the cars during those hours to check the drivers’ licenses. The theft rate for cars bearing such decals is much lower than had been usual for cars in those neighborhoods. If it is concluded from the statements above that automobile theft has been reduced by the program, which one of the following would it be most important to answer in evaluating that conclusion? (A) Are owners who are cautious enough to join the program taking other special measures to protect their cars against theft? (B) In how many neighborhoods is the police program operating? (C) Are cars in neighborhoods that are actively participating in the program sometimes stolen during daylight hours? (D) Will owners who have placed decals on their cars’ windows but who find it necessary to drive between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. be harassed by police? (E) Are the neighborhoods in which the program has been put into effect a representative cross section of neighborhoods with respect to the types of automobiles owned by residents?

If a society encourages freedom of thought and expression, then, during the time when it does so, creativity will flourish in that society. In the United States creativity flourished during the eighteenth century. It is clear, therefore, that freedom of thought was encouraged in the United States during eighteenth century. An error of reasoning of the same kind as one contained in the passage is present in each of EXCEPT: (A) According to the airline industry, airfares have to rise if air travel is to be made safer; since airfares were just raised, we can rest assured that air travel will therefore become safer. (B) We can conclude that the Hillside police department has improved its efficiency, because crime rates are down in Hillside, and it is an established fact that crime rates go down when police departments increase their efficiency. (C) People who are really interested in the preservation of wildlife obviously do not go hunting for big game; since Gerda has never gone hunting for big game and intends never to do so, it is clear that she is really interested in the preservation of wildlife. (D) If the contents of a bottle are safe to drink, the bottle will not be marked “poison,” so, since the bottle is not marked “poison,” its contents will be safe to drink. (E) None of the so-called Western democracies is really democratic, because, for a country to be democratic, the opinion of each of its citizens must have a meaningful effect on government, and in none of these countries does each citizen’s opinion have such an effect.

Nature constantly adjusts the atmospheric carbon level. An increase in the level causes the atmosphere to hold more heat, which causes more water to evaporate from the oceans, which causes increased rain. Rain washes some carbon from the air into the oceans, where it eventually becomes part of the seabed. A decrease in atmospheric carbon causes the atmosphere to hold less heat, which causes decreased evaporation from the oceans, which causes less rain, and thus less carbon is washed into the oceans. Yet some environmentalists worry that burning fossil fuels may raise atmospheric carbon to a dangerous level. It is true that a sustained increase would threaten human life. But the environmentalists should relax— nature will continually adjust the carbon level. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the passage? (A) Plant life cannot survive without atmospheric carbon. (B) It is not clear that breathing excess carbon in the atmosphere will have a negative effect on human life. (C) Carbon is part of the chemical “blanket” that keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain human life. (D) Breathing by animals releases almost 30 times as much carbon as does the burning of fossil fuels. (E) The natural adjustment process, which occurs over millions of years, allows wide fluctuations in the carbon level in the short term.

Recently, highly skilled workers in Eastern Europe have left jobs in record numbers to emigrate to the West. It is therefore likely that skilled workers who remain in Eastern Europe are in high demand in their home countries. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) Eastern European factories prefer to hire workers from their home countries rather than to import workers from abroad. (B) Major changes in Eastern European economic structures have led to the elimination of many positions previously held by the highly skilled emigrants. (C) Many Eastern European emigrants need to acquire new skills after finding work in the West. (D) Eastern European countries plan to train many new workers to replace the highly skilled workers who have emigrated. (E) Because of the departure of skilled workers from Eastern European countries, many positions are now unfilled.

Shanna: Owners of any work of art, simply by virtue of ownership, ethically have the right to destroy that artwork if they find it morally or aesthetically distasteful, or if caring for it becomes inconvenient. Jorge: Ownership of unique artworks, unlike ownership of other kinds of objects, carries the moral right to possess but not to destroy. A unique work of art with aesthetic or historical value belongs to posterity and so must be preserved, whatever the personal wishes of its legal owner On the basis of their statements, Shanna and Jorge are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following statements? (A) Anyone who owns a portrait showing his/her father in an unflattering light would for that reason alone be ethically justified in destroying it. (B) People who own aesthetically valuable works of art have no moral obligation to make them available for public viewing. (C) Valuable paintings by well-known artists are seldom intentionally damaged or destroyed by their owners. (D) If a piece of sculpture is not unique, its owner has no ethical obligation to preserve it if doing so proves burdensome. (E) It is legally permissible for a unique and historically valuable mural to be destroyed by its owner if he or she tires of it.

Observatory director: Some say that funding the megatelescope will benefit only the astronomers who will work with it. This dangerous point of view, applied to the work of Maxwell, Newton, or Einstein, would have stifled their research and deprived the world of beneficial applications, such as the development of radio, that followed from that research. If the statements above are put forward as an argument in favor of development of the megatelescope, which one of the following is the strongest criticism of that argument? (A) It appeals to the authority of experts who cannot have known all the issues involved in construction of the megatelescope. (B) It does not identify those opposed to development of the megatelescope. (C) It launches a personal attack on opponents of the megatelescope by accusing them of having a dangerous point of view. (D) It does not distinguish between the economic and the intellectual senses of “benefit.” (E) It does not show that the proposed megatelescope research is worthy of comparison with that of eminent scientists in its potential for applications.

In response to an overwhelming demand for better technical support, we have added an online help section to our website where customers can chat live with customer service representatives. We are confident that this change will significantly decrease both the number and frequency of complaints about our technical support. The company’s plan assumes which of the following? A Customers will not have other complaints. B All of their customers have access to the internet. C Customer service representatives can provide technical support. D Online support will be equally as effective as telephone support. E Customers are less likely to complain via email than by telephone

Prominent business executives often play active roles in United States presidential campaigns as fund-raisers or backroom strategists, but few actually seek to become president themselves. Throughout history the great majority of those who have sought to become president have been lawyers, military leaders, or full-time politicians. This is understandable, for the personality and skills that make for success in business do not make for success in politics. Business is largely hierarchical, whereas politics is coordinative. As a result, business executives tend to be uncomfortable with compromises and power-sharing, which are inherent in politics. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the proposed explanation of why business executives do not run for president? (A) Many of the most active presidential fund-raisers and backroom strategists are themselves politicians. (B) Military leaders are generally no more comfortable with compromises and power-sharing than are business executives. (C) Some of the skills needed to become a successful lawyer are different from some of those needed to become a successful military leader. (D) Some former presidents have engaged in business ventures after leaving office. (E) Some hierarchically structured companies have been major financial supporters of candidates for president.

Traffic engineers have increased the capacity of the Krakkenbak Bridge to handle rush-hour traffic flow. The resultant increase in rush-hour traffic flow would not have occurred had the city not invested in computer modeling technology last year at the request of the city’s mayor, and the city’s financial predicament would not have been resolved if the traffic flow across the bridge during rush hour had not been increased. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? (A) The city’s financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city chosen a competing computer modeling software package. (B) The city’s financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city not invested in computer modeling technology. (C) On an average day, more traffic crosses the Krakkenbak Bridge this year as compared to last year. (D) Traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour would not have increased had the city’s mayor not made investing in computer modeling technology the highest budgetary priority last year. (E) The city’s mayor was a proponent of investing in computer modeling technology because of the city’s need to increase traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour

A gas tax of one cent per gallon would raise one billion dollars per year at current consumption rates. Since a tax of fifty cents per gallon would therefore raise fifty billion dollars per year, it seems a perfect way to deal with the federal budget deficit. This tax would have the additional advantage that the resulting drop in the demand for gasoline would be ecologically sound and would keep our country from being too dependent on foreign oil producers. Which one of the following most clearly identifies an error in the author’s reasoning? (A) The author cites irrelevant data. (B) The author relies on incorrect current consumption figures. (C) The author makes incompatible assumptions. (D) The author mistakes an effect for a cause. (E) The author appeals to conscience rather than reason.

Economic growth accelerates business demand for the development of new technologies. Businesses supplying these new technologies are relatively few, while those wishing to buy them are many. Yet an acceleration of technological change can cause suppliers as well as buyers of new technologies to fail. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? (A) Businesses supplying new technologies are more likely to prosper in times of accelerated technological change than other businesses. (B) Businesses that supply new technologies may not always benefit from economic growth. (C) The development of new technologies may accelerate economic growth in general. (D) Businesses that adopt new technologies are most likely to prosper in a period of general economic growth. (E) Economic growth increases business failures

It is the mark of a superior conductor that he or she has the authority to insist, even with a top orchestra, that rehearsal work must be intensified. This authority cannot simply be claimed; the conductor must earn it by winning the orchestra’s respect for the artistic interpretations he or she is currently pursuing. In taking the position outlined, the author presupposes which one of the following? (A) Superior conductors devise different interpretations of a composition for each orchestra with which they perform it. (B) Superior conductors are perfectionists who are never satisfied with any performance even by a top orchestra. (C) Top orchestras are always ready to put in additional work on rehearsals if the conductor considers additional rehearsing necessary. (D) Top orchestras can appreciate the merits of an interpretation even before they have brought it to full realization. (E) Even top orchestras are not always led by superior conductors

Historian: Alexander the Great should not be judged by appeal to current notions of justice. Alexander, an ancient figure of heroic stature, should be judged by the standards of his own culture. That is, did he live up to his culture’s ideals of leadership? Did Alexander elevate the contemporary standards of justice? Was he, in his day, judged to be a just and wise ruler? Student: But you cannot tell whether or not Alexander raised the contemporary standards of justice without invoking standards other than those of his own culture. Which one of the following argumentative strategies does the student use in responding to the historian? (A) arguing that applying the historian’s principle would require a knowledge of the past that is necessarily inaccessible to current scholarship (B) attempting to undermine the historian’s principle by showing that some of its consequences are inconsistent with each other (C) showing that the principle the historian invokes, when applied to Alexander, does not justify the assertion that he was heroic (D) questioning the historian’s motivation for determining whether a standard of behavior has been raised or lowered (E) claiming that one of the historian’s criteria for judging Alexander is inconsistent with the principle that the historian has advanced

Superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit. This will probably improve industrial productivity, for a similar improvement resulted when oil and natural gas replaced coal as the primary fossil fuels used in North America. Shipping costs, a function of the distance fossil fuels are shipped and the losses of material in transit, decreased for factory owners at that time. The claim that superconductor development will probably improve industrial productivity plays which one of the following roles in the argument? (A) It is a conclusion for which the claim that shipping costs for fossil fuels are partly a function of the losses of material in transit is offered as partial support. (B) It is a generalization for which the claim that superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit is offered as an illustration. (C) It is an assumption supporting the conclusion that superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit. (D) It is a premise offered to support the claim that oil and natural gas have replaced coal as the primary fossil fuels used in North America. (E) It is cited as evidence that shipping costs are a function of the distances fossil fuels are shipped and the losses of material in transit.

Professor: One cannot frame an accurate conception of one’s physical environment on the basis of a single momentary perception, since each such glimpse occurs from only one particular perspective. Similarly, any history book gives only a distorted view of the past, since it reflects the biases and prejudices of its author. The professor’s argument proceeds by (A) attempting to show that one piece of reasoning is incorrect by comparing it with another, presumably flawed, piece of reasoning (B) developing a case for one particular conclusion by arguing that if that conclusion were false, absurd consequences would follow (C) making a case for the conclusion of one argument by showing that argument’s resemblance to another, presumably cogent, argument (D) arguing that because something has a certain group of characteristics, it must also have another, closely related, characteristic (E) arguing that a type of human cognition is unreliable in one instance because it has been shown to be unreliable under similar circumstances

Despite improvements in treatment for asthma, the death rate from this disease has doubled during the past decade from its previous rate. Two possible explanations for this increase have been offered. First, the recording of deaths due to asthma has become more widespread and accurate in the past decade than it had been previously. Second, there has been an increase in urban pollution. However, since the rate of deaths due to asthma has increased dramatically even in cities with long-standing, comprehensive medical records and with little or no urban pollution, one must instead conclude that the cause of increased deaths is the use of bronchial inhalers by asthma sufferers to relieve their symptoms. Each of the following, if true, provides support to the argument EXCEPT: (A) Urban populations have doubled in the past decade. (B) Records of asthma deaths are as accurate for the past twenty years as for the past ten years. (C) Evidence suggests that bronchial inhalers make the lungs more sensitive to irritation by airborne pollen. (D) By temporarily relieving the symptoms of asthma, inhalers encourage sufferers to avoid more beneficial measures. (E) Ten years ago bronchial inhalers were not available as an asthma treatment.

Ethicist: Marital vows often contain the promise to love “until death do us part.” If “love” here refers to a feeling, then this promise makes no sense, for feelings are not within one’s control, and a promise to do something not within one’s control makes no sense. Thus, no one—including those making marital vows—should take “love” in this context to be referring to feelings. The ethicist’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) None of our feelings are within our control. (B) People should not make promises to do something that is not within their control. (C) “Love” can legitimately be taken to refer to something other than feelings. (D) Promises should not be interpreted in such a way that they make no sense. (E) Promises that cannot be kept do not make any sense

Members of the VideoKing Frequent Viewers club can now receive a special discount coupon. Members of the club who have rented more than ten videos in the past month can receive the discount coupon only at the VideoKing location from which the member last rented a movie. Members of the Frequent Viewers club who have not rented more than ten videos in the past month can receive the coupon only at the Main Street location. Pat, who has not rented more than ten videos in the past month, can receive the special discount coupon at the Walnut Lane location of VideoKing. If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? (A) The only people who can receive the special discount coupon at the Main Street location are Frequent Viewers club members who have not rented more than ten videos. (B) Some members of the Frequent Viewers club have not rented more than ten videos. (C) Some members of the Frequent Viewers club can receive the special discount coupon at more than one location of VideoKing. (D) Some people who are not members of the Frequent Viewers club can receive the special discount coupon. (E) If Pat rents a movie from the Main Street location, then she will not receive the special discount coupon

Jones: Prehistoric wooden tools found in South America have been dated to 13,000 years ago. Although scientists attribute these tools to peoples whose ancestors first crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska, this cannot be correct. In order to have reached a site so far south, these peoples must have been migrating southward well before 13,000 years ago. However, no such tools dating to before 13,000 years ago have been found anywhere between Alaska and South America. Smith: Your evidence is inconclusive. Those tools were found in peat bogs, which are rare in the Americas. Wooden tools in soils other than peat bogs usually decompose within only a few years. The point at issue between Jones and Smith is (A) whether all prehistoric tools that are 13,000 years or older were made of wood (B) whether the scientists’ attribution of tools could be correct in light of Jones’s evidence (C) whether the dating of the wooden tools by the scientists could be correct (D) how long ago the peoples who crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska first did so (E) whether Smith’s evidence entails that the wooden tools have been dated correctly

The life expectancy of people living below the poverty line in the United States is seven years shorter than the national average. A public health advocate argues that this is due to the fact that the poor cannot afford preventative medical care and often live in substandard housing where harmful substances such as lead paint and asbestos are common. An expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line is an ultimately more cost-efficient way of raising life expectancy, because preventative care will forestall many expensive emergency treatments. The argument that an expansion of health insurance services to those below the poverty line will forestall expensive emergency treatments assumes that A. Life expectancy can be increased by preventative medical care. B. There are an adequate number of physicians available to provide preventative medical care to all those below the poverty line. C. Expanded insurance plans will also treat complications caused by exposure to lead paint and asbestos in substandard housing. D. Lead paint and asbestos are not as significant in reducing life expectancy as lack of preventative medical care. E. Recipients of expanded health insurance coverage would take advantage of preventative medical care if they had the option.

A chemical leak at a local factory contaminated the water at a nearby fishing area. To compensate for the damage they caused to the river, the factory has announced their intention to donate a large sum of money to local environmental conservation efforts. The factory’s inadequate method of compensation was most likely caused by which of the following errors of reasoning? A. Mistaking cause for effect B. Equating a part with the whole C. Miscalculating a value D. Misapplying a principle E. Ignoring a premise

There are about 75 brands of microwave popcorn on the market; altogether, they account for a little over half of the money from sales of microwave food products. It takes three minutes to pop corn in the microwave, compared to seven minutes to pop corn conventionally. Yet by weight, microwave popcorn typically costs over five times as much as conventional popcorn. Judging by the popularity of microwave popcorn, many people are willing to pay a high price for just a little additional convenience. Which one of the following statements, if true, would call into question the conclusion in the passage? (A) More than 50 percent of popcorn purchasers buy conventional popcorn rather than microwave popcorn. (B) Most people who prefer microwave popcorn do so because it is less fattening than popcorn that is popped conventionally in oil. (C) The price of microwave popcorn reflects its packaging more than it reflects the quality of the popcorn contained in the package. (D) The ratio of unpopped kernels to popped kernels is generally the same whether popcorn is popped in a microwave or conventionally in oil. (E) Because microwave popcorn contains additives not contained in conventional popcorn, microwave popcorn weighs more than an equal volume of conventional popcorn.

During construction of the Quebec Bridge in 1907, the bridge’s designer, Theodore Cooper, received word that the suspended span being built out from the bridge’s cantilever was deflecting downward by a fraction of an inch. Before he could telegraph to freeze the project, the whole cantilever arm broke off and plunged, along with seven dozen workers, into the St. Lawrence River. It was the worst bridge construction disaster in history. As a direct result of the inquiry that followed, the engineering “rules of thumb” by which thousands of bridges had been built went down with the Quebec Bridge. Twentieth-century bridge engineers would thereafter depend on far more rigorous applications of mathematical analysis. Which one of the following statements can be properly inferred from the passage? (A) Bridges built before about 1907 were built without thorough mathematical analysis and, therefore, were unsafe for the public to use. (B) Cooper’s absence from the Quebec Bridge construction site resulted in the breaking off of the cantilever. (C) Nineteenth-century bridge engineers relied on their rules of thumb because analytical methods were inadequate to solve their design problems. (D) Only a more rigorous application of mathematical analysis to the design of the Quebec Bridge could have prevented its collapse. (E) Prior to 1907 the mathematical analysis incorporated in engineering rules of thumb was insufficient to completely assure the safety of bridges under construction.

Zeida: Dr. Ladlow, a research psychologist, has convincingly demonstrated that his theory about the determinants of rat behavior generates consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze. On the basis of this evidence, Dr. Ladlow has claimed that his theory is irrefutably correct. Anson: Then Dr. Ladlow is not a responsible psychologist. Dr. Ladlow’s evidence does not conclusively prove that his theory is correct. Responsible psychologists always accept the possibility that new evidence will show that their theories are incorrect. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from Anson’s argument? (A) Dr. Ladlow’s evidence that his theory generates consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze is inaccurate. (B) Psychologists who can derive consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze from their theories cannot responsibly conclude that those theories cannot be disproved. (C) No matter how responsible psychologists are, they can never develop correct theoretical explanations. (D) Responsible psychologists do not make predictions about how rats will perform in a maze. (E) Psychologists who accept the possibility that new evidence will show that their theories are incorrect are responsible psychologists.

In a bureaucracy, all decisions are arrived at by a process that involves many people. There is no one person who has the authority to decide whether a project will proceed or not. As a consequence, in bureaucracies, risky projects are never undertaken. The conclusion follows logically from the premises if which one of the following is assumed? (A) All projects in a bureaucracy require risk. (B) Decisive individuals choose not to work in a bureaucracy. (C) An individual who has decision-making power will take risks. (D) The only risky projects undertaken are those for which a single individual has decision-making power. (E) People sometimes take risks as individuals that they would not take as part of a group.

Felicia: Internships are a waste of time and energy. In the time you spend working for free, you could be temping or taking classes or pursuing employment that not only fulfills your interests, but also compensates you for your hard work. Nitesh: The purpose of internships isn’t compensation, it’s preparation for a future career. With an internship, you can secure connections within your field of choice and also gain experience that looks great on a resume. Nitesh objects to Felicia’s argument by: A correcting a common perception. B pointing out an error of logic. C refuting a previously agreed-upon conclusion. D objecting to an unstated premise. E suggesting an alternative definition.

Interior decorator: All coffeehouses and restaurants are public places. Most well-designed public places feature artwork. But if a public place is uncomfortable it is not well designed, and all comfortable public places have spacious interiors. If all of the interior decorator’s statements are true, then which one of the following must be true? (A) Any restaurant that has a spacious interior is comfortable. (B) Most public places that feature artwork are well designed. (C) Most coffeehouses that are well designed feature artwork. (D) Any well-designed coffeehouse or restaurant has a spacious interior. (E) Any coffeehouse that has a spacious interior is a well-designed public place

Council member: I recommend that the abandoned shoe factory be used as a municipal emergency shelter. Some council members assert that the courthouse would be a better shelter site, but they have provided no evidence of this. Thus, the shoe factory would be a better shelter site. A questionable technique used in the council member’s argument is that of (A) asserting that a lack of evidence against a view is proof that the view is correct (B) accepting a claim simply because advocates of an opposing claim have not adequately defended their view (C) attacking the proponents of the courthouse rather than addressing their argument (D) attempting to persuade its audience by appealing to their fear (E) attacking an argument that is not held by any actual council member

A consulting firm is planning to start a new program allowing employees more control over their health coverage. Instead of having their level of coverage based solely on salary, the employees will now be able to choose from three plans, the least expensive of which is the same price as the current mid-level plan. The company’s plan, as outlined in the passage above, assumes that: A. Employees will be willing to sacrifice a portion of their salaries for increased control over their coverage. B. The current least expensive plan offers inadequate coverage. C. Employees are tired of having their coverage determined by their salaries. D. The most basic of the three plans will include the same amount of coverage as the current least expensive plan. E. Higher-salaried employees will not be resentful of the plaN

If the public library shared by the adjacent towns of Redville and Glenwood were relocated from the library’s current, overcrowded building in central Redville to a larger, available building in central Glenwood, the library would then be within walking distance of a larger number of library users. That is because there are many more people living in central Glenwood than in central Redville, and people generally will walk to the library only if it is located close to their homes. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) The public library was located between Glenwood and Redville before being moved to its current location in central Redville. (B) The area covered by central Glenwood is approximately the same size as that covered by central Redville. (C) The building that is available in Glenwood is smaller than an alternative building that is available in Redville. (D) Many of the people who use the public library do not live in either Glenwood or Redville. (E) The distance that people currently walk to get to the library is farther than what is generally considered walking distance.

Saunders: Everyone at last week’s neighborhood association meeting agreed that the row of abandoned and vandalized houses on Carlton Street posed a threat to the safety of our neighborhood. Moreover, no one now disputes that getting the houses torn down eliminated that threat. Some people tried to argue that it was unnecessary to demolish what they claimed were basically sound buildings, since the city had established a fund to help people in need of housing buy and rehabilitate such buildings. The overwhelming success of the demolition strategy, however, proves that the majority, who favored demolition, were right and that those who claimed that the problem could and should be solved by rehabilitating the houses were wrong. Which one of the following principles, if established, would determine that demolishing the houses was the right decision or instead would determine that the proposal advocated by the opponents of demolition should have been adopted? (A) When what to do about an abandoned neighborhood building is in dispute, the course of action that would result in the most housing for people who need it should be the one adopted unless the building is believed to pose a threat to neighborhood safety. (B) When there are two proposals for solving a neighborhood problem, and only one of them would preclude the possibility of trying the other approach if the first proves unsatisfactory, then the approach that does not foreclose the other possibility should be the one adopted. (C) If one of two proposals for renovating vacant neighborhood buildings requires government funding whereas the second does not, the second proposal should be the one adopted unless the necessary government funds have already been secured. (D) No plan for eliminating a neighborhood problem that requires demolishing basically sound houses should be carried out until all other possible alternatives have been thoroughly investigated. (E) No proposal for dealing with a threat to a neighborhood’s safety should be adopted merely because a majority of the residents of that neighborhood prefer that proposal to a particular counterproposal.

Extinction is the way of nature. Scientists estimate that over half of the species that have ever come into existence on this planet were already extinct before humans developed even the most primitive of tools. This constant natural process of species emergence and extinction, however, is ignored by those who wish to trace the blame for more recent extinctions to humanity’s use of technology, with its consequent effects on the environment. These people must be made to understand that the species that have become extinct in modern times would have become extinct by now even if humans had never acquired technology. Which one of the following identifies a reasoning error in the passage? (A) The author mistakenly assumes that technology has not caused any harm to the environment. (B) The author ignores the fact that some species that are not yet extinct are in danger of extinction. (C) The author fails to consider that there are probably species in existence that have not yet been identified and studied by scientists. (D) The author cites scientists who support the theory that over half of all species that ever existed have become extinct, but fails to mention any scientists who do not support that theory. (E) The author provides no specific evidence that the species that have become extinct in modern times are the same species that would have become extinct in the absence of human technology.

People with serious financial problems are so worried about money that they cannot be happy. Their misery makes everyone close to them—family, friends, colleagues—unhappy as well. Only if their financial problems are solved can they and those around them be happy. Which one of the following statements can be properly inferred from the passage? (A) Only serious problems make people unhappy. (B) People who solve their serious financial problems will be happy. (C) People who do not have serious financial problems will be happy. (D) If people are unhappy, they have serious financial problems. (E) If people are happy, they do not have serious financial problems.

Waller: If there were really such a thing as extrasensory perception, it would generally be accepted by the public since anyone with extrasensory powers would be able to convince the general public of its existence by clearly demonstrating those powers. Indeed, anyone who was recognized to have such powers would achieve wealth and renown. Chin: It’s impossible to demonstrate anything to the satisfaction of all skeptics. So long as the cultural elite remains closed-minded to the possibility of extrasensory perception, the popular media reports, and thus public opinion, will always be biased in favor of such skeptics. Waller’s and Chin’s statements commit them to disagreeing on whether (A) extrasensory perception is a real phenomenon (B) extrasensory perception, if it were a real phenomenon, could be demonstrated to the satisfaction of all skeptics (C) skeptics about extrasensory perception have a weak case (D) the failure of the general public to believe in extrasensory perception is good evidence against its existence (E) the general public believes that extrasensory perception is a real phenomenon

Educator: Traditional classroom education is ineffective because education in such an environment is not truly a social process and only social processes can develop students’ insights. In the traditional classroom, the teacher acts from outside the group and interaction between teachers and students is rigid and artificial. The educator’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Development of insight takes place only if genuine education also occurs. (B) Classroom education is effective if the interaction between teachers and students is neither rigid nor artificial. (C) All social processes involve interaction that is neither rigid nor artificial. (D) Education is not effective unless it leads to the development of insight. (E) The teacher does not act from outside the group in a nontraditional classroom

The ancient Greek word askesis, from which the adjective ‘ascetic’ derives, means practice, training, or exercise, and was originally used in reference to any sort of disciplined practice. Today, the word ‘ascetic’ is primarily associated with the renunciation of worldly pursuits for the purpose of spiritual gain. However, anyone can choose to practice asceticism. Which of the following can be correctly inferred from the passage above? A The only people practicing asceticism today are monks, yogis or priests. B Asceticism no longer refers to any disciplined practices other than those undertaken for spiritual gain. C The ancient Greeks often incorporated principles of asceticism into their daily lives. D The word ‘asceticism’ can be used independent of religious connotation. E Ascetics consider worldly affairs more important than spiritual gain.

After studying ceramic pieces found in a seaport in Israel, archaeologists determined that the Philistines, an ancient people who settled in the Aegean Sea region around 1200 BC, were able to read and write in an undeciphered, non-Semitic language. This proves that, contrary to previous beliefs, the Philistines were actually a cultured and literate people. Which of the following, if true, offers the most support for the conclusion drawn in the passage above? A Tamil, a classical language of India and Sri Lanka, dates back to 500 BC. B The Philistines also had refined pottery and sophisticated architecture. C The language spoken by the Philistines is less sophisticated than other languages spoken at that time. D Archaeological research suggests that the Philistines had cultural ties to the Myceneans, in Greece. E The Philistines held a monopoly on iron smithing consistent with the Biblical descriptions of Goliath’s armor.

Though some reports have called the People’s Republic of China’s recently instated property law the first piece of Chinese legislation addressing the individual’s right to own private assets, this is not true. **The right to private property was in fact written into the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China four years ago**. The bolded phrase plays which of the following roles in the passage above? A Answer to a question B Correction of a misconception C Refutation of a known fact D Support for a claim E Statement of identity

If the city council maintains spending at the same level as this year’s, it can be expected to levy a sales tax of 2 percent next year. Thus, if the council levies a higher tax, it will be because the council is increasing its expenditures. Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most closely similar to that of the argument above? (A) If house-building costs are not now rising, builders cannot be expected to increase the prices of houses. Thus, if they decrease the prices of houses, it will be because that action will enable them to sell a greater number of houses. (B) If shops wish to reduce shoplifting, they should employ more store detectives. Thus, if shops do not, they will suffer reduced profits because of their losses from stolen goods. (C) If the companies in the state do not increase their workers’ wages this year, the prices they charge for their goods can be expected to be much the same as they were last year. Thus, if the companies do increase prices, it will be because they have increased wages. (D) If airlines wish to make profits this year that are similar to last year’s, they should not increase their prices this year. Thus, if they charge more, they should be expected to improve their services. (E) If newspaper publishers wish to publish good papers, they should employ good journalists. Thus, if they employ poor journalists, it will not be surprising if their circulation falls as a result.

Paleontologists have discovered fossils of centipedes that are 414 million years old. These fossils are at least 20 million years older than the earliest land-dwelling animals previously identified. The paleontologists are confident that these centipedes lived on land, even though the fossilized centipedes were discovered in rock that also contained fossilized remains of animals known to be water-dwelling. The paleontologists view would be LEAST supported by the truth of which one of the following? (A) The legs of the fossilized centipedes were particularly suited to being a means of locomotion on land. (B) All of the centipedes that had previously been discovered were land dwellers. (C) The rock in which the fossilized centipedes were found was formed from mud flats that were occasionally covered by river water. (D) Fossils of the earliest land-dwelling animals that had previously been identified were found in rock that did not contain fossilized remains of water-dwelling animals. (E) Fossils of spiders with respiratory systems adapted only to breathing air were found in the same rock as the centipede fossils

Mary, a veterinary student, has been assigned an experiment in mammalian physiology that would require her to take a healthy, anesthetized dog and subject it to a drastic blood loss in order to observe the physiological consequences of shock. The dog would neither regain consciousness nor survive the experiment.Mary decides not to do this assignment. Mary’s decision most closely accords with which one of the following principles? (A) All other things being equal, gratuitously causing any animal to suffer pain is unjustified. (B) Taking the life of an animal is not justifiable unless doing so would immediately assist in saving several animal lives or in protecting the health of a person. (C) The only sufficient justification for experimenting on animals is that future animal suffering is thereby prevented. (D) Practicing veterinarians have a professional obligation to strive to prevent the unnecessary death of an animal except in cases of severely ill or injured animals whose prospects for recovery are dim. (E) No one is ever justified in acting with the sole intention of causing the death of a living thing, be it animal or human.

The ruins of the prehistoric Bolivian city of Tiwanaku feature green andacite stones weighing up to 40 tons. These stones were quarried at Copacabana, which is across a lake and about 90 kilometers away. Archaeologists hypothesize that the stones were brought to Tiwanaku on reed boats. To show this was possible, experimenters transported a 9-ton stone from Copacabana to Tiwanaku using a reed boat built with locally available materials and techniques traditional to the area. Which one of the following would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the support for the archaeologists’ hypothesis? (A) whether the traditional techniques for building reed boats were in use at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited (B) whether green andacite stones quarried at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited were used at any sites near Copacabana (C) whether reed boats are commonly used today on the lake (D) whether the green andacite stones at Tiwanaku are the largest stones at the site (E) whether the reed boat built for the experimenters is durable enough to remain usable for several years

Anthropologist: It was formerly believed that prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans interbred with Neanderthals, but DNA testing of a Neanderthal’s remains indicates that this is not the case. The DNA of contemporary humans is significantly different from that of the Neanderthal. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the anthropologist’s argument? (A) At least some Neanderthals lived at the same time and in the same places as prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans. (B) DNA testing of remains is significantly less reliable than DNA testing of samples from living species. (C) The DNA of prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans was not significantly more similar to that of Neanderthals than is the DNA of contemporary humans. (D) Neanderthals and prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans were completely isolated from each other geographically. (E) Any similarity in the DNA of two species must be the result of interbreeding

Journalist: Newspapers generally report on only those scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic. Furthermore, newspaper stories about small observational studies, which are somewhat unreliable, are more frequent than newspaper stories about large randomized trials, which generate stronger scientific evidence. Therefore, a small observational study must be more likely to have dramatic findings than a large randomized trial. Which one of the following most accurately expresses a flaw in the journalist’s reasoning? (A) It casts doubt on the reliability of a study by questioning the motives of those reporting it. (B) It fails to consider that even if a study’s findings sound dramatic, the scientific evidence for those findings may be strong. (C) It confuses a claim about scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic with a similar claim about small observational studies. (D) It overlooks the possibility that small observational studies are far more common than large randomized trials. (E) It fails to rule out the possibility that a study’s having findings that sound dramatic is an effect rather than a cause of the study’s being reported on

The method by which attorneys at Watson & Crick bill for their time is inherently faulty. Accounting rules allow billing for a full hour even when an attorney has not worked on a specific file for a full 60 minutes. Inevitably, this practice will lead to attorneys billing for more full hours than they actually work, passing on false expenses to clients anytime they open a file or pick up the phone. Which of the following, if true, constitutes the best piece of evidence for countering the claim that attorneys at Watson & Crick are likely to bill for more full hours than they work? A. Attorneys at Watson & Crick are required to attend annual ethics seminars, during which over-billing is strongly discouraged. B. Senior partners at Watson & Crick typically bill over 60 hours per week. C. Accounting rules at Watson & Crick only allow attorneys to bill for a full hour if they have performed more than one task for a client in a given day. D. Attorney fees at Watson & Crick are calculated based on 15-minute segments of billing time. E. Attorneys often have tremendous workloads and expect to be reasonably compensated for time spent working for clients

The Baysville Chamber of Commerce recently met to discuss a proposal to beautify the Baysville area’s freeways by relocating power lines, adding landscaping, and removing billboards. At the meeting,Mary Simms, who was representing an outdoor advertising company, declared, “Billboards are the basis of our business. If they are torn down, our ability to earn a living will be severely damaged.” “I don’t agree,” said Jack Jordan, a local merchant. “The basis of our business is an attractive community. People who might shop in Baysville don’t want to see ugly billboards on their way into town. Billboards are hurting our ability to earn a living.” Jack Jordan’s remarks suggest that he is misinterpreting which one of the following words used by Mary Simms? (A) billboards (B) basis (C) our (D) ability (E) damaged

The advanced technology of ski boots and bindings has brought a dramatic drop in the incidence of injuries that occur on the slopes of ski resorts: from 9 injuries per 1,000 skiers in 1950 to 3 in 1980. As a result, the remainder of ski-related injuries, which includes all injuries occurring on the premises of a ski resort but not on the slopes, rose from 10 percent of all ski-related injuries in 1950 to 25 percent in 1980. The incidence of these injuries, including accidents such as falling down steps, increases with the amount of alcohol consumed per skier. Which one of the following conflicts with information in the passage? (A) The number of ski injuries that occurred on the slopes was greater in 1980 than in 1950. (B) A skier was less likely to be injured on the slopes in 1950 than in 1980. (C) The reporting of ski injuries became more accurate between 1950 and 1980. (D) The total number of skiers dropped between 1950 and 1980. (E) Some ski-related injuries occurred in 1980 to people who were not skiing.

Populations of a shrimp species at eleven different Indonesian coral reefs show substantial genetic differences from one reef to another. This is surprising because the area’s strong ocean currents probably carry baby shrimp between the different reefs, which would allow the populations to interbreed and become genetically indistinguishable. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the substantial genetic differences among the shrimp populations? (A) The genetic differences between the shrimp populations are much less significant than those between shrimp and any other marine species. (B) The individual shrimp within a given population at any given Indonesian coral reef differ from one another genetically, even though there is widespread interbreeding within any such population. (C) Before breeding, shrimp of the species examined migrate back to the coral reef at which they were hatched. (D) Most shrimp hatched at a given Indonesian coral reef are no longer present at that coral reef upon becoming old enough to breed. (E) Ocean currents probably carry many of the baby shrimp hatched at a given Indonesian coral reef out into the open ocean rather than to another coral reef

The Scorpio Miser with its special high-efficiency engine costs more to buy than the standard Scorpio sports car. At current fuel prices, a buyer choosing the Miser would have to drive it 60,000 miles to make up the difference in purchase price through savings on fuel. It follows that, if fuel prices fell, it would take fewer miles to reach the break-even point. Which one of the following arguments contains an error of reasoning similar to that in the argument above? (A) The true annual rate of earnings on an interest-bearing account is the annual rate of interest less the annual rate of inflation. Consequently, if the rate of inflation drops, the rate of interest can be reduced by an equal amount without there being a change in the true rate of earnings. (B) For retail food stores, the Polar freezer, unlike the Arctic freezer, provides a consistent temperature that allows the store to carry premium frozen foods. Though the Polar freezer uses more electricity, there is a bigger profit on premium foods. Thus, if electricity rates fell, a lower volume of premium-food sales could justify choosing the Polar freezer. (C) With the Roadmaker, a crew can repave a mile of decayed road in less time than with the competing model, which is, however, much less expensive. Reduced staffing levels made possible by the Roadmaker eventually compensate for its higher price. Therefore, the Roadmaker is especially advantageous where average wages are low. (D) The improved strain of the Northland apple tree bears fruit younger and lives longer than the standard strain. The standard strain does grow larger at maturity, but to allow for this, standard trees must be spaced farther apart. Therefore, new plantings should all be of the improved strain. (E) Stocks pay dividends, which vary from year to year depending on profits made. Bonds pay interest, which remains constant from year to year. Therefore, since the interest earned on bonds does not decrease when economic conditions decline, investors interested in a reliable income should choose bonds.

Since viewers consistently imitate the behaviors they see on TV, continued exposure to violent programs will cause more people to consider violence an acceptable way of solving problems. In order to prevent a nationwide increase in violent crime, the government should ban the broadcast of violent programs. Which of the following is most similar to the passage above in logical structure? A. A judge finds the publisher of a chemistry textbook liable when a group of college students uses an experiment described in the book to start a fire in a rival’s dorm room. B. A mother bans her teenage sons from watching violent television shows after they are involved in a series of fights with classmates. C. A teacher hides the jar of candy she usually keeps on her desk in order to prevent students from gorging on it and ruining their lunch. D. A tour guide does not reveal to his clients the location of the town’s best ice cream shop because he has been upbraided by the shop’s owners for sending in too large a crowd. E. A restaurant manager refuses to distribute fliers advertising an upcoming political rally because she does not support the candidate

Court records from medieval France show that in the years 1300 to 1400 the number of people arrested in the French realm for “violent interpersonal crimes” (not committed in wars) increased by 30 percent over the number of people arrested for such crimes in the years 1200 to 1300. If the increase was not the result of false arrests, therefore, medieval France had a higher level of documented interpersonal violence in the years 1300 to 1400 than in the years 1200 to 1300. Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) In the years 1300 to 1400 the French government’s category of violent crimes included an increasing variety of interpersonal crimes that are actually nonviolent. (B) Historical accounts by monastic chroniclers in the years 1300 to 1400 are filled with descriptions of violent attacks committed by people living in the French realm. (C) The number of individual agreements between two people in which they swore oaths not to attack each other increased substantially after 1300. (D) When English armies tried to conquer parts of France in the mid- to late 1300s, violence in the northern province of Normandy and the southwestern province of Gascony increased. (E) The population of medieval France increased substantially during the first five decades of the 1300s, until the deadly bubonic plague decimated the population of France after 1348.

Principle: If a food product contains ingredients whose presence most consumers of that product would be upset to discover in it, then the food should be labeled as containing those ingredients. Application: Crackly Crisps need not be labeled as containing genetically engineered ingredients, since most consumers of Crackly Crisps would not care if they discovered that fact. The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it (A) fails to address the possibility that consumers of a specific food may not be representative of consumers of food in general (B) fails to address the possibility that the genetically engineered ingredients in Crackly Crisps may have been proven safe for human consumption (C) implicitly makes use of a value judgment that is incompatible with the principle being applied (D) takes for granted that if most consumers of a product would buy it even if they knew several of the ingredients in it, then they would buy the product even if they knew all the ingredients in it (E) confuses a claim that under certain conditions a certain action should be taken with a claim that the action need not be taken in the absence of those conditions

A survey was recently conducted among ferry passengers on the North Sea. Among the results was this: more of those who had taken anti-seasickness medication before their trip reported symptoms of seasickness than those who had not taken such medication. It is clear, then, that despite claims by drug companies that clinical tests show the contrary, people would be better off not taking anti-seasickness medications. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the conclusion above? (A) Given rough enough weather, most ferry passengers will have some symptoms of seasickness. (B) The clinical tests reported by the drug companies were conducted by the drug companies’ staffs. (C) People who do not take anti-seasickness medication are just as likely to respond to a survey on seasickness as people who do. (D) The seasickness symptoms of the people who took anti-seasickness medication would have been more severe had they not taken the medication. (E) People who have spent money on anti-seasickness medication are less likely to admit symptoms of seasickness than those who have not.

Biologist: Researchers believe that dogs are the descendants of domesticated wolves that were bred to be better companions for humans. It has recently been found that some breeds of dog are much more closely related genetically to wolves than to most other breeds of dog. This shows that some dogs are descended from wolves that were domesticated much more recently than others. Which one of the following principles underlies the biologist’s argument? (A) If one breed of dog is descended from wolves that were domesticated more recently than were the wolves from which most other breeds of dog are descended, the former breed may be more closely related to wolves than those other breeds are. (B) If one breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than to another breed of dog, then the former breed of dog has more recent undomesticated wolf ancestors than the latter breed has. (C) Any breed of dog descended from wolves that were domesticated is more closely related genetically to at least some other breeds of dog than to wolves. (D) If one breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than another breed of dog is, then the former breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than to the latter breed of dog. (E) Any two breeds of dog that are more closely related to each other than to wolves are both descended from wolves that were domesticated long ago.

Principle: A police officer is eligible for a Mayor’s Commendation if the officer has an exemplary record, but not otherwise; an officer eligible for the award who did something this year that exceeded what could be reasonably expected of a police officer should receive the award if the act saved someone’s life. Conclusion: Officer Franklin should receive a Mayor’s Commendation but Officer Penn should not. From which one of the following sets of facts can the conclusion be properly drawn using the principle? (A) In saving a child from drowning this year, Franklin and Penn both risked their lives beyond what could be reasonably expected of a police officer. Franklin has an exemplary record but Penn does not. (B) Both Franklin and Penn have exemplary records, and each officer saved a child from drowning earlier this year. However, in doing so, Franklin went beyond what could be reasonably expected of a police officer; Penn did not. (C) Neither Franklin nor Penn has an exemplary record. But, in saving the life of an accident victim, Franklin went beyond what could be reasonably expected of a police officer. In the only case in which Penn saved someone’s life this year, Penn was merely doing what could be reasonably expected of an officer under the circumstances. (D) At least once this year, Franklin has saved a person’s life in such a way as to exceed what could be reasonably expected of a police officer. Penn has not saved anyone’s life this year. (E) Both Franklin and Penn have exemplary records. On several occasions this year Franklin has saved people’s lives, and on many occasions this year Franklin has exceeded what could be reasonably expected of a police officer. On no occasions this year has Penn saved a person’s life or exceeded what could be reasonably expected of an officer

Educator: Reducing class sizes in our school district would require hiring more teachers. However, there is already a shortage of qualified teachers in the region. Although students receive more individualized instruction when classes are smaller, education suffers when teachers are underqualified. Therefore, reducing class sizes in our district would probably not improve overall student achievement. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the educator’s argument? (A) Class sizes in the school district should be reduced only if doing so would improve overall student achievement. (B) At least some qualified teachers in the school district would be able to improve the overall achievement of students in their classes if class sizes were reduced. (C) Students place a greater value on having qualified teachers than on having smaller classes. (D) Hiring more teachers would not improve the achievement of any students in the school district if most or all of the teachers hired were underqualified. (E) Qualified teachers could not be persuaded to relocate in significant numbers to the educator’s region to take teaching jobs.

Dr. Schilling: Those who advocate replacing my country’s private health insurance system with. nationalized health insurance because of the rising costs of medical care fail to consider the high human costs that consumers pay in countries with nationalized insurance: access to high-technology medicine is restricted. Kidney transplants and open-heart surgery-familiar life-saving procedures are rationed. People are denied their right to treatments they want and need. Dr. Laforte: Your country’s reliance on private health insurance denies access even to basic, conventional medicine to the many people who cannot afford adequate health coverage.With nationalized insurance, rich and poor have equal access to life-saving medical procedures, and people’s right to decent medical treatment regardless of income is not violated. In responding to Dr. Schilling, Dr. Laforte employs which one of the following argumentative strategies? (A) showing that the objections raised by Dr. Schilling have no bearing on the question of which of the two systems under consideration is the superior system (B) calling into question Dr. Schilling’s status as an authority on the issue of whether consumers’ access to medical treatments is restricted in countries with nationalized health insurance (C) producing counterexamples to Dr. Schilling’s claims that nationalized health insurance schemes extract high human costs from consumers (D) demonstrating that Dr. Schilling’s reasoning is persuasive only because of his ambiguous use of the key word “consumer” (E) showing that the force of Dr. Schilling’s criticism depends on construing the key notion of access in a particular limited way

Researchers are testing a theory of artificial intelligence with an algorithm based on the ancient Eastern game Go. This is due to the game’s highly complex, mathematically natural relationship between the stones placed on the board, which mirrors patterns found in nature. It can be inferred from the passage that: A. Intelligence is purely mathematical. B. The game of Go was not invented, but discovered. C. Artificial intelligence will be a reality in the near future. D. The game of Go requires a knowledge of mathematics. E. Artificial intelligence could be based on natural phenomena.

Last year sales tax in State Y was raised by 1%, with the additional revenues promised to fund improvements in education. Representative Smith has proposed that the portion of sales tax revenues allotted to County X – some $5 million – be used to build additional schools and access roads in outlying areas, where even major streets are often impassable due to flooding. Representative Smith has already posted on his website blueprints detailing 3 new schools and 2 roadways designed to be unaffected by floods. Which of the following, if true, represents the largest obstacle facing Representative Smith’s plan to use sales tax revenues to build additional schools in outlying areas of County X? (A) County X has rejected a proposal to establish toll stations along frequently-traveled roads in the county, even though funds raised were to be directed to Representative Smith’s project. (B) Students in County X currently travel an average of 20 miles in order to reach an existing school. (C) More densely populated counties in State Y will receive a larger percentage of the total revenues generated by the sales tax increase. (D) Provisions of the sales tax revenue rules allow funds to be used for any project impacting the education of at least 2% of students in County X. (E) The state has stipulated that sales tax revenues designated for education be used only for the construction or remodeling of school buildings, and curriculum improvements.

Advertisement: In today’s world, you make a statement about the person you are by the car you own. The message of the SKX Mach-5 is unambiguous: Its owner is Dynamic, Aggressive, and Successful. Shouldn’t you own an SKX Mach-5? If the claims made in the advertisement are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? (A) Anyone who is dynamic and aggressive is also successful. (B) Anyone who is not both dynamic and successful would misrepresent himself or herself by being the owner of an SKX Mach-5. (C) People who buy the SKX Mach-5 are usually more aggressive than people who buy other cars. (D) No car other than the SKX Mach-5 announces that its owner is successful. (E) Almost no one would fail to recognize the kind of person who would choose to own an SKX Mach-5.

Ann: All the campers at CampWinnehatchee go to Tri-Cities High School. Bill: That’s not true. Some Tri-Cities students are campers at Camp Lakemont. Bill’s answer can be best explained on the assumption that he has interpreted Ann’s remark to mean that (A) most of the campers at Camp Lakemont come from high schools other than Tri-Cities (B) most Tri-Cities High School students are campers at CampWinnehatchee (C) some Tri-Cities High School students have withdrawn from Camp Lakemont (D) all Tri-Cities High School students attend summer camp (E) only campers at CampWinnehatchee arestudents at Tri-Cities High School

Inspector: The only fingerprints on the premises are those of the owner, Mr. Tannisch. Therefore, whoever now has his guest’s missing diamonds must have worn gloves. Which one of the following exhibits a flaw in its reasoning most similar to that in the inspector’s reasoning? (A) The campers at Big Lake Camp, all of whom became ill this afternoon, have eaten food only from the camp cafeteria. Therefore, the cause of the illness must not have been something they ate. (B) The second prototype did not perform as well in inclement weather as did the first prototype. Hence, the production of the second prototype might have deviated from the design followed for the first. (C) Each of the swimmers at this meet more often loses than wins. Therefore, it is unlikely that any of them will win. (D) All of Marjorie’s cavities are on the left side of her mouth. Hence, she must chew more on the left side than on the right. (E) All of these tomato plants are twice as big as they were last year. So if we grow peas, they will probably be twice as big as last year’s peas

Learning how to build a nest plays an important part in the breeding success of birds. For example,Dr. Snow has recorded the success of a number of blackbirds in several successive years.He finds that birds nesting for the first time are less successful in breeding than are older birds, and also less successful than they themselves are a year later. This cannot be a mere matter of size and strength, since blackbirds, like the great majority of birds, are fully grown when they leave the nest. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that they benefit by their nesting experience. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? (A) Blackbirds build better nests than other birds. (B) The capacity of blackbirds to lay viable eggs increases with each successive trial during the first few years of reproduction. (C) The breeding success of birds nesting for the second time is greater than that of birds nesting for the first time. (D) Smaller and weaker blackbirds breed just as successfully as bigger and stronger blackbirds. (E) Up to 25 percent of all birds are killed by predators before they start to nest.

Critic to economist: In yet another of your bumbling forecasts, last year you predicted that this country’s economy would soon go into recession if current economic policies were not changed. Instead, economic growth is even stronger this year. Economist: There was nothing at all bumbling about my warning. Indeed, it convinced the country’s leaders to change economic policies, which is what prevented a recession. The economist responds to the critic by (A) indicating that the state of affairs on which the economist’s prediction was conditioned did not obtain (B) distinguishing between a prediction that has not yet turned out to be correct and one that has turned out to be incorrect (C) attempting to show that the critic’s statements are mutually inconsistent (D) offering a particular counterexample to a general claim asserted by the critic (E) offering evidence against one of the critic’s factual premises

The public in the United States has in the past been conditioned to support a substantial defense budget by the threat of confrontation with the Eastern bloc. Now that that threat is dissolving, along with the Eastern bloc itself, it is doubtful whether the public can be persuaded to support an adequate defense budget. Which one of the following indicates a weakness in the position expressed above? (A) It presupposes that public opinion can be manipulated indefinitely, without the public’s becoming aware of that manipulation. (B) It refers to past and present events that do not have a causal connection with public support of the budget. (C) It assumes as fact what it seeks to establish by reasoning. (D) It fails to give any reason for the judgment it reaches. (E) It hinges on the term “adequate,” the precise meaning of which requires reevaluation in the new context.

Senator Strongwood reported that, contrary to a study cited by the administration, a thorough study by his own party concluded that a reduction in the capital gains tax would lead to an increase in the federal deficit. “Hooray for common sense,” he said. “Everyone knows that when you cut taxes you lose revenue.” He concluded that the administration’s plan for reducing the capital gains tax was now dead, because he could not imagine any senator voting to increase the deficit. Which one of the following accurately describes something Senator Strongwood does in advancing his argument? (A) He implies that increasing the capital gains tax would decrease the federal deficit. (B) He assumes senators will believe his party’s report instead of the administration’s. (C) He resorts to name-calling by expressly stating that his opponents lack common sense. (D) He assumes that senators will rarely vote for unpopular legislation. (E) He assumes that a study commissioned by his party must be more objective than one commissioned by the administration.

Although nondairy coffee lighteners made with coconut oil contain 2 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, or 7 times more than does whole milk, those lighteners usually contain no cholesterol. Yet one tablespoon of such lighteners causes the consumer’s blood cholesterol to rise to a higher level than does an identical amount of whole milk, which contains 2 milligrams of cholesterol per tablespoon. Manufacturers of coffee lighteners based on coconut oil claim that their products usually cause the typical consumer’s blood cholesterol to rise to a lower level than does the use of whole milk as a lightener. Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the manufacturers’ claim? (A) Consumers of lighteners made with coconut oil who avoid other high-cholesterol foods and exercise more than average tend to have lower-than-average blood cholesterol levels. (B) Coffee is frequently consumed with pastries and other rich desserts that themselves result in high blood cholesterol levels. (C) One popular nondairy coffee lightener that is not based on coconut oil has reduced its fat content by 20 percent while keeping its cholesterol content at zero. (D) Consumers typically add to their coffee substantially smaller quantities of coconut oil-based lighteners than of whole milk. (E) Most consumers are convinced that whole dairy products increase blood cholesterol and that nondairy coffee lighteners do not.

Political theorist: The chief foundations of all governments are the legal system and the police force; and as there cannot be a good legal system where the police are not well paid, it follows that where the police are well paid there will be a good legal system. The reasoning in the argument is not sound because it fails to establish that (A) many governments with bad legal systems have poorly paid police forces (B) bad governments with good legal systems must have poorly paid police forces (C) a well-paid police force cannot be effective without a good legal system (D) a well-paid police force is sufficient to guarantee a good legal system (E) some bad governments have good legal systems

Charity Hospital Board Member: It does not make sense to continue pouring money into print advertising when telephone solicitation is a more effective fundraising method. We currently employ three people full-time whose only job is to call families of former patients and ask them to donate. EACH of the following, if true, undermines the argument that print advertising should be discontinued in favor of telephone solicitation EXCEPT (A) Funds paying the salaries of the telephone solicitors represent a slightly larger dollar amount than money received through their fundraising efforts. (B) Inaccurate record-keeping makes it difficult to determine what percentage of total fundraising dollars were raised according to which method. (C) A survey reveals that most of those who gave money to the hospital were first exposed to a fundraising ad in the newspaper and viewed the telephone call as a follow-up. (D) A survey reveals that most of those who gave money to the hospital did so because they had emotionally connected with a fundraiser over the telephone. (E) A survey reveals that most of those who declined to donate to the hospital did so because they were offended by the approach of the telephone solicitors

The “suicide wave” that followed the United States stock market crash of October 1929 is more legend than fact. Careful examination of the monthly figures on the causes of death in 1929 shows that the number of suicides in October and in November was comparatively low. In only three other months were the monthly figures lower. During the summer months, when the stock market was flourishing, the number of suicides was substantially higher. Which one of the following, if true, would best challenge the conclusion of the passage? (A) The suicide rate is influenced by many psychological, interpersonal, and societal factors during any given historical period. (B) October and November have almost always had relatively high suicide rates, even during the 1920s and 1930s. (C) The suicide rate in October and November of 1929 was considerably higher than the average for those months during several preceding and following years. (D) During the years surrounding the stock market crash, suicide rates were typically lower at the beginning of any calendar year than toward the end of that year. (E) Because of seasonal differences, the number of suicides in October and November of 1929 would not be expected to be the same as those for other months.

Aerobics instructor: Compared to many forms of exercise, kickboxing aerobics is highly risky. Overextending when kicking often leads to hip, knee, or lower-back injuries. Such overextension is very likely to occur when beginners try to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the aerobics instructor’s statements? (A) Skilled practitioners of kickboxing aerobics are unlikely to experience injuries from overextending while kicking. (B) To reduce the risk of injuries, beginners at kickboxing aerobics should avoid trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners. (C) Beginners at kickboxing aerobics will not experience injuries if they avoid trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners. (D) Kickboxing aerobics is more risky than forms of aerobic exercise that do not involve high kicks. (E) Most beginners at kickboxing aerobics experience injuries from trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners

Ever since I arrived at the college last week, I've been shocked by the poor behavior of the students. The student population is completely lacking in proper social skills Which of the following, if true, would weaken the above conclusion? A) Students who are away from their parents often exhibit rude behavior. B) The college numbers over 50,000 students. C) The narrator is a student and has interacted with many students. D) Social skills should not be expected of college students E) The narrator was reluctant to stay at the college

Pedro: Unlike cloth diapers, disposable diapers are a threat to the environment. Sixteen billion disposable diapers are discarded annually, filling up landfills at an alarming rate. So people must stop buying disposable diapers and use cloth diapers. Maria: But you forget that cloth diapers must be washed in hot water, which requires energy. Moreover, the resulting wastewater pollutes our rivers.When families use diaper services, diapers must be delivered by fuel-burning trucks that pollute the air and add to traffic congestion. Maria objects to Pedro’s argument by (A) claiming that Pedro overstates the negative evidence about disposable diapers in the course of his argument in favor of cloth diapers (B) indicating that Pedro draws a hasty conclusion, based on inadequate evidence about cloth diapers (C) pointing out that there is an ambiguous use of the word “disposable” in Pedro’s argument (D) demonstrating that cloth diapers are a far more serious threat to the environment than disposable diapers are (E) suggesting that the economic advantages of cloth diapers outweigh whatever environmental damage they may cause

Principle: If an insurance policy is written in such a way that a reasonable person seeking insurance would not read it thoroughly before signing it, then the reasonable expectations of the policyholder concerning the policy’s coverage should take legal precedence over specific language in the written policy itself. Application: The insurance company should be required to cover the hail damage to Celia’s car, even though specific language in the written policy Celia signed excluded coverage for hail damage. Which one of the following, if true, most justifies the above application of the principle? (A) Celia is a reasonable person, and she expected the insurance policy to cover hail damage to her car. (B) Given the way it was written, a reasonable person would not have read Celia’s insurance policy thoroughly before signing it, and Celia reasonably expected the policy to cover hail damage. (C) The insurance policy that Celia signed was written in such a way that a reasonable person would not read it thoroughly before signing it, but Celia did read the policy thoroughly before signing it. (D) Celia did not read the insurance policy thoroughly before signing it, and a reasonable person in her position would assume that the policy would cover hail damage. (E) Celia did not read the written insurance policy thoroughly before signing it, and a reasonable person in her position would not have done so either.

Psychologist: People tend to make certain cognitive errors when they predict how a given event would affect their future happiness. But people should not necessarily try to rid themselves of this tendency. After all, in a visual context, lines that are actually parallel often appear to people as if they converge. If a surgeon offered to restructure your eyes and visual cortex so that parallel lines would no longer ever appear to converge, it would not be reasonable to take the surgeon up on the offer. The psychologist’s argument does which one of the following? (A) attempts to refute a claim that a particular event is inevitable by establishing the possibility of an alternative event (B) attempts to undermine a theory by calling into question an assumption on which the theory is based (C) argues that an action might not be appropriate by suggesting that a corresponding action in an analogous situation is not appropriate (D) argues that two situations are similar by establishing that the same action would be reasonable in each situation (E) attempts to establish a generalization and then uses that generalization to argue against a particular action

The cause of the epidemic that devastated Athens in 430 B.C. can finally be identified. Accounts of the epidemic mention the hiccups experienced by many victims, a symptom of no known disease except that caused by the recently discovered Ebola virus. Moreover, other symptoms of the disease caused by the Ebola virus are mentioned in the accounts of the Athenian epidemic. Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: (A) Victims of the Ebola virus experience many symptoms that do not appear in any of the accounts of the Athenian epidemic. (B) Not all of those who are victims of the Ebola virus are afflicted with hiccups. (C) The Ebola virus’s host animals did not live in Athens at the time of the Athenian epidemic. (D) The Ebola virus is much more contagious than the disease that caused the Athenian epidemic was reported to have been. (E) The epidemics known to have been caused by the Ebola virus are usually shorter-lived than was the Athenian epidemic

The 1980s have been characterized as a period ofselfish individualism that threatens the cohesion of society. But this characterization is true of any time. Throughout history all human actions have been motivated by selfishness.When the deeper implications are considered, even the simplest “unselfish” acts prove to be instances of selfish concern for the human species. Which one of the following is a flaw in the argument? (A) The claim that selfishness has been present throughout history is not actually relevant to the argument. (B) No statistical evidence is provided to show that humans act selfishly more often than they act unselfishly. (C) The argument assumes that selfishness is unique to the present age. (D) The argument mentions only humans and does not consider the behavior of other species. (E) The argument relies on two different uses of the term“selfish."

In the secretarial schools of the mid-20th century, accuracy of typing was valued as much as speed. Business letters were supposed to be error-free with no visible corrections, and on typing tests, deductions were made from the speed scoring for every error found. The development of so many varieties of correction methods and technologies in this time period is therefore somewhat of a mystery. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the conclusion drawn above? A Business letters were typed on a heavyweight paper that not only looked good, but could endure repeated erasure. B A special kind of typewriter paper called erasable bond was invented to allow easier removal of type from the page. C Typewriters are more difficult to type on than keyboards, and even the most sophisticated typewriters would sometimes jam. D In the mid-20th century, typewriters were as ubiquitous as computers are today. E Typing mistakes were considered sufficient reason for firing a secretary.

Two paleontologists, Dr. Tyson and Dr. Rees, disagree over the interpretation of certain footprints that were left among other footprints in hardened volcanic ash at site G. Dr. Tyson claims they are clearly early hominid footprints since they show human characteristics: a squarish heel and a big toe immediately adjacent to the next toe. However, since the footprints indicate that if hominids made those prints they would have had to walk in an unexpected cross-stepping manner, by placing the left foot to the right of the right foot, Dr. Rees rejects Dr. Tyson’s conclusion. The disagreement between the two paleontologists is over which one of the following? (A) the relative significance of various aspects of the evidence (B) the assumption that early hominid footprints are distinguishable from other footprints (C) the possibility of using the evidence of footprints to determine the gait of the creature that made those footprints (D) the assumption that evidence from one paleontologic site is enough to support a conclusion (E) the likelihood that early hominids would have walked upright on two feet

It is even more important that we criticize democracies that have committed human rights violations than that we criticize dictatorships that have committed more violent human rights offenses. Human rights violations are always inexcusable, but those committed by governments that represent the will of the people are even more reprehensible than those committed by dictators. Further, our criticism is more likely to have an effect on the former than on the latter. Which one of the following is a proper inference from the passage? (A) All governments commit some inexcusable and reprehensible acts. (B) Some human rights violations are more reprehensible than other, more violent human rights violations. (C) Criticism of human rights violations is certain to have no effect on a dictatorship. (D) Human rights violations are more likely to occur in democracies than in dictatorships. (E) Those who do represent the will of the people are less likely to be moved by criticism than are those who merely claim to represent the will of the people.

Physician: The patient is suffering either from disease X or else from disease Y, but there is no available test for distinguishing X from Y. Therefore, since there is an effective treatment for Y but no treatment for X, we must act on the assumption that the patient has a case of Y. The physician’s reasoning could be based on which one of the following principles? (A) In treating a patient who has one or the other of two diseases, it is more important to treat the diseases than to determine which of the two diseases the patient has. (B) If circumstances beyond a decision maker’s control will affect the outcome of the decision maker’s actions, the decision maker must assume that circumstances are unfavorable. (C) When the soundness of a strategy depends on the truth of a certain assumption, the first step in putting the strategy into effect must be to test the truth of this assumption. (D) When success is possible only if a circumstance beyond one’s control is favorable, then one’s strategy must be based on the assumption that this circumstance is in fact favorable. (E) When only one strategy carries the possibility of success, circumstances must as much as possible be changed to fit this strategy.

Situation: In the island nation of Bezun, the government taxes gasoline heavily in order to induce people not to drive. It uses the revenue from the gasoline tax to subsidize electricity in order to reduce prices charged for electricity. Analysis: The greater the success achieved in meeting the first of these objectives, the less will be the success achieved in meeting the second. The analysis provided for the situation above would be most appropriate in which one of the following situations? (A) A library charges a late fee in order to induce borrowers to return books promptly. The library uses revenue from the late fee to send reminders to tardy borrowers in order to reduce the incidence of overdue books. (B) A mail-order store imposes a stiff surcharge for overnight delivery in order to limit use of this option. The store uses revenue from the surcharge to pay the extra expenses it incurs for providing the overnight delivery service. (C) The park management charges an admission fee so that a park’s users will contribute to the park’s upkeep. In order to keep admission fees low, the management does not finance any new projects from them. (D) A restaurant adds a service charge in order tospare customers the trouble of individual tips. The service charge is then shared among the restaurant’s workers in order to augment their low hourly wages. (E) The highway administration charges a toll for crossing a bridge in order to get motorists to use other routes. It uses the revenue from that toll to generate a reserve fund in order to be able one day to build a new bridge.

Dr. Schilling: Those who advocate replacing my country’s private health insurance system with. nationalized health insurance because of the rising costs of medical care fail to consider the high human costs that consumers pay in countries with nationalized insurance: access to high-technology medicine is restricted. Kidney transplants and open-heart surgery-familiar life-saving procedures are rationed. People are denied their right to treatments they want and need. Dr. Laforte: Your country’s reliance on private health insurance denies access even to basic, conventional medicine to the many people who cannot afford adequate health coverage.With nationalized insurance, rich and poor have equal access to life-saving medical procedures, and people’s right to decent medical treatment regardless of income is not violated. Dr. Schilling’s and Dr. Laforte’s statements provide the most support for holding that they would disagree about the truth of which one of the following? (A) People’s rights are violated less when they are denied an available medical treatment they need because they lack the means to pay for it than when they are denied such treatment on noneconomic grounds. (B) Where health insurance is provided by private insurance companies, people who are wealthy generally receive better health care than do people who are unable to afford health insurance. (C) In countries that rely primarily on private health insurance to pay for medical costs, most people who would benefit from a kidney transplant receive one. (D) In countries with nationalized health insurance, no one who needs a familiar medical treatment in order to stay alive is denied that treatment. (E) Anyone who wants a particular medical treatment has a right to receive that treatment.

Mayor of Plainsville: In order to help the economy of Plainsville, I am using some of our tax revenues to help bring a major highway through the town and thereby attract new business to Plainsville. Citizens’ group: You must have interests other than our economy in mind. If you were really interested in helping our economy, you would instead allocate the revenues to building a new business park, since it would bring in twice the business that your highway would. The argument by the citizens’ group relies on which one of the following assumptions? (A) Plainsville presently has no major highways running through it. (B) The mayor accepts that a new business park would bring in more new business than would the new highway. (C) The new highway would have no benefits for Plainsville other than attracting new business. (D) The mayor is required to get approval for all tax revenue allocation plans from the city council. (E) Plainsville’s economy will not be helped unless a new business park of the sort envisioned by the citizens’ group is built.

Historically, famines have generally been followed by periods of rising wages, because when a labor force is diminished, workers are more valuable in accordance with the law of supply and demand. The Irish potato famine of the 1840s is an exception; it resulted in the death or emigration of half of Ireland's population, but there was no significant rise in the average wages in Ireland in the following decade. Which one of the following, if true, would LEAST contribute to an explanation of the exception to the generalization? (A) Improved medical care reduced the mortality rate among able-bodied adults in the decade following the famine to below prefamine levels. (B) Eviction policies of the landowners in Ireland were designed to force emigration of the elderly and infirm, who could not work, and to retain a high percentage of able-bodied workers. (C) Advances in technology increased the efficiency of industry and agriculture, and so allowed maintenance of economic output with less demand for labor. (D) The birth rate increased during the decade following the famine, and this compensated for much of the loss of population that was due to the famine. (E) England, which had political control of Ireland, legislated artificially low wages to provide English-owned industry and agriculture in Ireland with cheap labor

People cannot be morally responsible for things over which they have no control. Therefore, they should not be held morally responsible for any inevitable consequences of such things, either. Determining whether adults have any control over the treatment they are receiving can be difficult. Hence in some cases it can be difficult to know whether adults bear any moral responsibility for the way they are treated. Everyone, however, sometimes acts in ways that are an inevitable consequence of treatment received as an infant and infants clearly cannot control, and so are not morally responsible for, the treatment they receive. Anyone making the claims above would be logically committed to which one of the following further claims? (A) An infant should never be held morally responsible for an action that infant has performed. (B) There are certain commonly performed actions for which no one performing those actions should ever be held morally responsible. (C) Adults who claim that they have no control over the treatment they are receiving should often be held at least partially responsible for being so treated. (D) If a given action is within a certain person’s control that person should be held morally. (E) No adult should be held morally responsible for every action he or she performs.

In a study of the effect of radiation from nuclear weapons plants on people living in areas near them, researchers compared death rates in the areas near the plants with death rates in areas that had no such plants. Finding no difference in these rates, the researchers concluded that radiation from the nuclear weapons plants poses no health hazards to people living near them. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the researchers’ argument? (A) Nuclear power plants were not included in the study. (B) The areas studied had similar death rates before and after the nuclear weapons plants were built. (C) Exposure to nuclear radiation can cause many serious diseases that do not necessarily result in death. (D) Only a small number of areas have nuclear weapons plants. (E) The researchers did not study the possible health hazards of radiation on people who were employed at the nuclear weapons plants if those employees did not live in the study areas.

The theory of military deterrence was based on a simple psychological truth, that fear of retaliation makes a would-be aggressor nation hesitate before attacking and is often sufficient to deter it altogether from attacking. Clearly, then, to maintain military deterrence, a nation would have to be believed to have retaliatory power so great that a potential aggressor nation would have reason to think that it could not defend itself against such retaliation. If the statements above are true, which one of the following can be properly inferred? (A) A would-be aggressor nation can be deterred from attacking only if it has certain knowledge that it would be destroyed in retaliation by the country it attacks. (B) A nation will not attack another nation if it believes that its own retaliatory power surpasses that of the other nation. (C) One nation’s failing to attack another establishes that the nation that fails to attack believes that it could not withstand a retaliatory attack from the other nation. (D) It is in the interests of a nation that seeks deterrence and has unsurpassed military power to let potential aggressors against it become aware of its power of retaliatory attack. (E) Maintaining maximum deterrence from aggression by other nations requires that a nation maintain a retaliatory force greater than that of any other nation

Editorial: The town would not need to spend as much as it does on removing trash if all town residents sorted their household garbage. However, while telling residents that they must sort their garbage would get some of them to do so, many would resent the order and refuse to comply. The current voluntary system, then, is to be preferred, because it costs about as much as a nonvoluntary system would and it does not engender nearly as much resentment. The contention that the town would not have to spend as much as it does on removing trash if all town residents sorted their garbage plays which one of the following roles in the editorial’s argument? (A) It is a claim that the editorial is trying to show is false. (B) It is a fact granted by the editorial that lends some support to an alternative to the practice that the editorial defends as preferable. (C) It is an example of a difficulty facing the claim that the editorial is attempting to refute. (D) It is a premise that the editorial’s argument relies on in reaching its conclusion. (E) It is the conclusion that the editorial’s argument purports to establish.

Politician: Homelessness is a serious social problem, but further government spending to provide low-income housing is not the cure for homelessness. The most cursory glance at the real-estate section of any major newspaper is enough to show that there is no lack of housing units available to rent. So the frequent claim that people are homeless because of a lack of available housing is wrong. That homelessness is a serious social problem figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? (A) It suggests an alternative perspective to the one adopted in the argument. (B) It sets out a problem the argument is designed to resolve. (C) It is compatible either with accepting the conclusion or with denying it. (D) It summarizes a position the argument as a whole is directed toward discrediting. (E) It is required in order to establish the conclusion.

Counselor: Hagerle sincerely apologized to the physician for lying to her. So Hagerle owes me a sincere apology as well, because Hagerle told the same lie to both of us. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the counselor’s reasoning? (A) It is good to apologize for having done something wrong to a person if one is capable of doing so sincerely. (B) If someone tells the same lie to two different people, then neither of those lied to is owed an apology unless both are. (C) Someone is owed a sincere apology for having been lied to by a person if someone else has already received a sincere apology for the same lie from that same person. (D) If one is capable of sincerely apologizing to someone for lying to them, then one owes that person such an apology. (E) A person should not apologize to someone for telling a lie unless he or she can sincerely apologize to all others to whom the lie was told

Because our club recruited the best volleyball players in the city, we will have the best team in the city. Moreover, since the best team in the city will be the team most likely to win the city championship, our club will almost certainly be city champions this year. The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument (A) presumes, without presenting relevant evidence, that an entity can be distinguished as the best only on the basis of competition (B) predicts the success of an entity on the basis of features that are not relevant to the quality of that entity (C) predicts the outcome of a competition merely on the basis of a comparison between the parties in that competition (D) presumes, without providing warrant, that if an entity is the best among its competitors, then each individual part of that entity must also be the best (E) concludes that because an event is the most likely of a set of possible events, that event is more likely to occur than not

Counselor: Those who believe that criticism should be gentle rather than harsh should consider the following: change requires a motive, and criticism that is unpleasant provides a motive. Since harsh criticism is unpleasant, harsh criticism provides a motive. Therefore, only harsh criticism will cause the person criticized to change. The reasoning in the counselor’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) infers that something that is sufficient to provide a motive is necessary to provide a motive (B) fails to address the possibility that in some cases the primary goal of criticism is something other than bringing about change in the person being criticized (C) takes for granted that everyone who is motivated to change will change (D) confuses a motive for doing something with a motive for avoiding something (E) takes the refutation of an argument to be sufficient to show that the argument’s conclusion is false

Steve and JoAnne are both members of a certain club, though they are not speaking to each other and refuse to work with each other. Cecily, the club president, is appointing members to the fundraising committee, but she has resolved that she will not appoint anyone without his or her explicit consent. Steve tells Cecily, "I will not consent to appointment on that committee unless I know whether JoAnne is to be a member of it." And JoAnne says, "I will not consent to be a member of that committee unless I know whether Steve will be appointed to it." If all three of these people stick by these resolutions, then: A) Neither of them can be appointed to the committee. B) The situation described in the scenario cannot arise, because it is inherently incoherent. C) They must either both be appointed or both be left out. D) The committee may finally have one of them, both of them, or neither of them as members. E) Either one of them can be appointed, but not both

Like a number of other articles, Ian Raghnall’s article relied on a recent survey in which over half the couples applying for divorces listed “money” as a major problem in their marriages. Raghnall’s conclusion from the survey data is that financial problems are the major problem in marriages and an important factor contributing to the high divorce rate. Yet couples often express other types of marital frustrations in financial terms. Despite appearances, the survey data do not establish that financial problems are the major problem in contemporary marriages. In the passage, the author does which one of the following? (A) undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by offering a specific counterexample (B) undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by offering an alternative explanation for some of the data (C) undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by showing that one cannot prove the presence of an emotion by using statistical methods (D) undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by criticizing the survey for which the data was gathered (E) undermines a conclusion by showing that couples cannot accurately describe their own problems

Council member: The profits of downtown businesses will increase if more consumers live in the downtown area, and a decrease in the cost of living in the downtown area will guarantee that the number of consumers living there will increase. However, the profits of downtown businesses will not increase unless downtown traffic congestion decreases. If all the council member’s statements are true, which one of the following must be true? (A) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the number of consumers living in the downtown area will increase. (B) If the cost of living in the downtown area decreases, the profits of downtown businesses will increase. (C) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the cost of living in the downtown area will increase. (D) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the cost of living in the downtown area will decrease. (E) If the profits of downtown businesses increase, the number of consumers living in the downtown area will increase

Subprime, adjustable-rate mortgages, issued to consumers with poor credit histories, accounted for less then 15 percent of all conventional loans in the city last year. However, they were the source of half of all foreclosures. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage above? A Poor credit history is predictive of poor loan management. B 85% of loans last year were issued to consumers with good credit history. C Consumers with good credit history are more likely to avoid foreclosure. D In the last year, there were significantly more foreclosures than issuances for consumers holding subprime, adjustable-rate mortgages. E Half of all foreclosures in the last year were on homeowners with poor credit history.

Researcher: Every year approximately the same number of people die of iatrogenic “disease”—that is, as a direct result of medical treatments or hospitalization—as die of all other causes combined. Therefore, if medicine could find ways of preventing all iatrogenic disease, the number of deaths per year would decrease by half. The reasoning in the researcher’s argument is flawed because the argument fails to consider that (A) prevention of noniatrogenic disease will have an effect on the occurrence of iatrogenic disease (B) some medical treatments can be replaced by less invasive or damaging alternatives (C) people who do not die of one cause may soon die of another cause (D) there is no one way to prevent all cases of death from iatrogenic disease (E) whenever a noniatrogenic disease occurs, there is a risk of iatrogenic disease

Sally has never received a violation from the Federal Aviation Administration during her 16-year flying career. Sally must be a great pilot. Which of the following can be said about the reasoning above? A) The definitions of the terms create ambiguity. B) The argument uses circular reasoning C) The argument works by analogy. D) The argument is built upon hidden assumptions. E) This is an example of an argument that is directed against the source of the claim rather than the claim itself