CRM

Question 1

key issues affecting Johnson

Answer 1

Vietnam
Containment policy
Development of the CRM
The death and legacy of Kennedy
poverty
the space race

Question 2

what did johnson use to get what he wanted

Answer 2

the Johnson Technique

Question 3

johnson technique

Answer 3

Johnson excelled by intimidation. At 6’3 he used his physical presence to intimidate opponents. He was known for making aides uncomfortable by conducting meetings on the toilet and exposing himself

Question 4

what feeling did Kennedy’s death generate

Answer 4

Kennedy’s death generated a feeling in Congress and the notion that there should be some legislative tribute and that the nation must change and improve.

Question 5

how did Johnson use the kennedy legacy

Answer 5

Johnson used this to obtain anti-poverty legislation and the civil rights bill. Johnson introduced bills with emotive references to Kennedy. For example, by saying ‘Let us here highly resolve that John Kennedy did not live or die in vain’. The national mourning of Kennedy translated into sympathy for Johnson which contributed to the Democrat Triumphs in the 1964 elections. Kennedy’s legacy proved fatal to the Vietnam war as he had greatly increased US involvement. He kept Kennedy’s cabinet in place including Bobby Kennedy, Dean Rusk and Robert McNamara. He renamed the New Frontier - The Great Society and NASA as JFK Space Centre

Question 6

why did Johnson continue Involvement in vietnam

Answer 6

Johnson continued involvement in Vietnam as he stated that he was keeping the policies of Kennedy

Question 7

motives for the Great Society

Answer 7

Johnson saw liberalism as a way of defeating communism
Legacy of Kennedy
Could pass legislation because of democratic majority in congress

Question 8

what did MLK feel about Johnson’s CRB

Answer 8

MLK was not convinced as he felt J was trying to retain power and gain a large amount of support in the North to compensate for losing the South

Question 9

Johnson and Civil Rights as a senator

Answer 9

Johnson didnt sign the southern manifesto but had a part in watering down the 1957 bill.

Question 10

what did Johnson think the civil rights reform would do

Answer 10

Johnson felt reform would help the economic, political and spiritual reintegration of the south.

Question 11

struggles for the CRA

Answer 11

It was filibustered for 54 days by Dixie crats but it eventually became law in July 1964. Johnson felt this meant that the south couldn’t vote democrat again and to some extent he was correct - Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina have only voted one Democrat since - Jimmy Carter. The NAACP lobbied Congress constantly

Question 12

what CRA was passed first

Answer 12

The 1964 CRA

Question 13

The 1964 CRA

Answer 13

It made all forms of dejure segregation a federal crime. It ended segregation in all public places and expanded school desegregation with an Equal Opportunity Commission. However, AA felt that the act had not gone far enough. Most still suffered from poverty and discrimination. This led to riots in black ghettos. The act did little to facilitate black voting. It took MLK’s campaign to ensure the black rights to vote

Question 14

what event led to the VRA

Answer 14

Selma Alabama

Question 15

Selma Alabama

Answer 15

50% of Selma’s population were AA in Selma but only 23% of people were registered to vote. King knew that Selma’s Sherrif Jim Clark could be trusted to react as brutally as Bull Connor had at Birmingham which would bring national publicity and revitalise SCLC and the CRM. King led would-be voters to register at Selma county but despite a federal judge’s ruling, they were unsuccessful. This led to violence and Jim Clark was photographed hitting a female black protester. Whites threw venomous snakes at AA trying to register. MLK wanted the violence to prove his point to the media. But Selma had not proved as explosive as King had hoped so the SCLC and the SNCC organised a march from Selma to Montgomery to publicise the need for a VRA. Eight White Alabamans joined the march. On what was termed Bloody Sunday - state troopers attacked the marchers with clubs and tear gas, Selma prompted congress to pass the VRA

Question 16

why was the VRA passed

Answer 16

King’s selma campaign had drawn national and international attention to the continuing disenfranchisement of AA in the South. The US claimed to be the leader of the free world and communist propaganda emphasises the inequality demonstrated at Selma. Johnson used his power of persuasion for example, he made a speech to congress in March 1965 where he said ‘it is wrong, deadly wrong, to deny any of your fellow Americans the right to vote’.

Question 17

act passed after Selma

Answer 17

The voting rights act 1965

Question 18

what did the VRA do

Answer 18

It abolished literacy tests and poll taxes and established federal registers. All that was needed to vote was American citizenship and a registration form. The registrars were federal employees, anything they did to deny a Black citizen the right to vote made them answerable to the federal system rather than local politicians who were more likely to be racist. By the end of 1966, only 4 of the southern states had less than half of their AA population registered to vote. Despite the political difficulties involved he still managed to still get it passed.

Question 19

impact of the VRA

Answer 19

the number of black people elected to office increased six-fold from 1965 to 1969. In 1960 there had been no black officials in Mississippi by 1980 there were over 300. In 1980, King’s old friend Baynard Rustin found that the South has been transformed. Johnsons’ education Acts sped up school desegregation and helped black colleges. His civil rights legislation opened the way for a larger black middle class. His GS contributed to decreases in black unemployment which were down by 34%, number of black people below the poverty line was down by 25%. Many AA continued to suffer poor housing, schools, and job opportunities and an inability to get out of poverty

Question 20

limitation to Johnson’s role

Answer 20

1. Found it hard to progress after 1965 because there was a change in white opinion because of increased black violence
2. 1966 civil rights legislation failed - 70% of white people did not want Black Neighbours
3. Johnson had to rely on local authorities to carry out programmes and sometimes they refused
4. In 1964 Mayor Daley in Chicago funded defacto segregated schools

Question 21

limitations to LBJ factors

Answer 21

1. Congress
2. Local Officials
3. Urban Riots
4. Vietnam War and Rising Taxes
5. Johnson’s Open Housing Law

Question 22

congress

Answer 22

After 1965, Congress responded to decreased white sympathy for civil rights legislation. In 1966 congress rejected an administration civil rights bill, one aim of which was to prohibit housing discrimination. Polls showed that 70% of white voters opposed large numbers of black neighbours. Johnson found it hard to sustain support for his war on poverty. In response to his 1968 request for legislation to help AA children suffering from rat bites in rundown ghetto accommodation, members of Congress joked that he should send in a federal cat army to deal with his ‘civil rats bill’

Question 23

local officials

Answer 23

Johnson had to rely on state and local authorities to carry out his programmes. They were sometimes reluctant to cooperate. For example, although the 1964 civil rights act said federal funding should not be given to segregated schools, Chicago Mayor Daley was a valuable political ally so he got his friends and kept his defacto segregated schools. This pattern was repeated in other Northern cities.

Question 24

urban riots

Answer 24

Successive summers of rioting in black ghettos from 1964 until 1968 caused a white backlash. After the Watts riots, members of Los Angelos city got tired of being blamed for the black predicament, whites were turning against Johnsons’ reform programme. Johnson was disappointed at the riots - surprised that it occurred after the civil rights act. The riots helped ensure that Johnson could do little to help African Americans after the 1965 voting rights act. A 1965 poll showed that 85% of whites advocated black self-improvement, more education and harder work rather than government help. A 1966 poll showed that 90% opposed new civil rights legislation. In 1964 a poll showed that 52% said Johnson was going too fast on integration and only 40% said not fast enough. Black militants also fuelled the white backlash. When the black panthers advocated self-defence and Black Power, they frightened and alienated whites

Question 25

vietnam war and rising taxes

Answer 25

The expense and distraction of the Vietnam war stopped Johnson from introducing all the social reforms he desired. The war was the main reason why the federal government deficit rose from $1.6B in 1965 to $25.3B by 1968. The deficit forced Johnson to ask Congress for tax rises. White voters attributed these higher taxes to the nearly 50% increase in federal expenditure on the poor. As a result, Johnsons’ social reform programmes grew increasingly unpopular. White Americans were tired of paying for America’s oppressed minorities. Polls recorded racial problems as the nation’s most important domestic issues and many believed that Johnson’s reforms encouraged riots and Black Power militancy

Question 26

johnson’s open housing law

Answer 26

While Johnson supported integrated housing as he felt it was immoral and exacerbated racial tensions, whites opposed integrated housing, sometimes because of racism mostly because black movement into white neighbourhoods made property values fall. Congress repeatedly rejected his appeals for legislation until King’s assassination in 1968 made Congress feel it had to respond with a legislative tribute. The 1968 fair housing act prohibited discrimination in the sale or rental of housing but proved difficult to enforce in the face of determined white opposition

Question 27

too far too fast

Answer 27

Johnson was accused of going too far too fast. However, Johnsons’ achievements were great. His CRA and VRA transformed the South. Johnson passed an executive order in 1965 which required any institution receiving federal funding to employ more non-whits, this accelerated the spread of affirmative action. Although the situation of many AAs remained dire. Johnson had helped improve their social, political and economic status through his CRAs, affirmative action policies and the war on poverty.

Question 28

developments in the Civil Rights Movements

Answer 28

Some were unhappy with mainstream CR groups because :
King and the SCLC left cities embittered, king had the messiah complex and the SCLC had a ‘leader worship’. Some criticised him for taking donations and spending them on campaigns in the North. There was not enough focus on ghetto deprivation - they wanted integration with the white population. MLK was seen as an ‘uncle tom’ character. After the CRA’s the movement mission in the South seemed accomplished but another was developing in the North with a focus on economic issues

Question 29

new groups that emerged

Answer 29

Elijah Mohammed and the NOI
Malcolm X

Question 30

Elijah Mohammed and the NOI

Answer 30

NOI was founded by Wallace Fard in Detriot in 1930 and led by Elijah Mohammed from 1934 to 1975. He said he was a prophet of Allah, but his teachings differed from that of Orthodox Islam. He claimed that Allah originally created human beings with black skin but an evil scientist Yakub created other races. His last evil creation was the white race. Whites would rule the word for several thousand years but then Allah would return and end their supremacy

Question 31

aims of the NOI

Answer 31

1. Provide AA with an alternative to the white mans Christian religion
2. Increase Black Self Esteem
3. Keep white and black Americans separate
4. Encourage AA to improve their economic situation

Question 32

criticisms of the NOI

Answer 32

Some of the NOIs solutions to black problems such as a return to Africa or a separate black state in the deep south were unrealistic
NOI teachings exacerbated interracial divisions and antagonised other AA
The NOI lost some credibility among AA when Malcolm X and two of Elijan Mohhamed’s sons left it and publicised the rampant materialism and hypocrisy among the movement’s leadership and over NOIs involvement in X’s assassination
Although the NOI and black power movement favoured separatism. EM was dismissive towards non-muslim African culture which alienated some black power activistst

Question 33

achievements of the NOI

Answer 33

Most black power advocates saw Elijan Mohhamed and the NOI as people behind black nationalism. MOI newspaper Mohammed Speaks had a weekly circulation of 600,000 by the end of the 70s which showed that non-members found comfort in its message of separatism and self-defence. The NOI attracted and inspired Ghetto inhabitants because of its self-confidence and emphasis on racial pride and economic self-help. Elijah Mohhamed created many businesses that symbolised black success and provided economic opportunities. The NOI established schools in cities like Detroit and Chicago where children were taught black history

Question 34

malcolm x

Answer 34

He aimed to improve the lives of African Americans. His main method was the use of sermons, speeches, and writing to encourage critical thinking on race problems and to encourage racial hatred and violence to achieve equality.

Question 35

a change for Malcolm

Answer 35

Malcolm X left - March 1964- the NOI after learning about Elijah Mohammad extra marital affairs. The high-profile nature of his departure also caused problems for some NOI leaders. X went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and toured Africa and Europe, promoting two new organisations, Muslim Mosque Inc and the organisation of African American Unity. He started to find unity with other civil rights groups and criticised the NOI for being racist. Some say this was a ploy to re-create his public image. He was harassed and intimated by the NOI until they assassinated him in Feb 1965 in front of his children

Question 36

the legacy of M X

Answer 36

Thurgood Marshal was critical of the NOI, he referred to them as thugs and C didn’t achieve anything. Manty saw him as irresponsible and negative and blamed him for increased black violence. He never established an organisation as effective and long-lasting as the NAACP or the SCLC despite his criticism of King. On the other hand, X drew attention to ghetto conditions. He became a black icon and role model for black youth particularly as he connected to them. He inspired leaders such as Stokely Carmichael and Floyd McKissick

Question 37

the radicalisation of African Americans

Answer 37

Ghetto problems - although the CRM effected change in the south, it did nothing for the problems of the Ghettos in the North, the focus turned to economic equality. This prompted king to switch his focus on the ghettos. He went to Chicago in order to raise his point in 1966

Question 38

ghetto problems - stats

Answer 38

Those born in the ghetto found it hard to break out of the cycle of poverty. Only 32% of ghetto pupils finished high school, compared to 56% of white children. Ghetto schools did not provide a solid educational foundation for good jobs. Increased automation decreased the availability of unskilled employment in the 50s and 60s and contributed to black unemployment. In the 60s, 46% of unemployed Americans were black, Chicago had 50-70% black youth unemployment

Question 39

kings chicago campaign

Answer 39

The achievements of the 1964 and 65 legislation and the divisions in the NOI following the assassination of X led the SCLS and king to look North for this next intervention and to focus on economic justice. King told Baynard Rustin that the movement needed to focus on economic opportunity to allow Black people to afford to eat in the restaurants they could now sit in. This led King to Chicago in 1966. City Mayor Daley was a faithful democrat and close ally of Johnson and was wary of kings intentions. This lack of political support along with poor planning meant the Chicago campaign saw failures

Question 40

events at the chicago campaign

Answer 40

King moved his family into a ghetto apartment which the landlord quickly refurbished to prevent media attention. The rally only gathered 30,000 supporters instead of the hoped-for 100,000. Daley blamed king for the riots. A march through the white WC area of Cicero saw violent opposition with cries of ‘apes’ king was hit by a rock and made the decision to leave Chicago.

Question 41

why did the Chicago campaign fail

Answer 41

Chicago failed because there was no clear path/plan of action. Kings tactics did not suit the territory and his focus was not on the real concerns of Northern AA such as police brutality, a lack of skilled jobs and the poor ghetto conditions. Johnson made $4B of federal funds available but it was a drop in the ocean of what was needed, he was alienated by Kings outspoken stance on the vietnam war. King had also failed to fully commit to Chicago because of problems elsewhere - Meredith March-

Question 42

positives of Kings Chicago campaign

Answer 42

Kings Chicago campaign attracted a great deal of national attention but whereas Northern Whites often sympathised with AA who suffered segregation and disenfranchisement in the South, they were unsympathetic when his campaigns drew attention to the exclusion of AA from Northern white WC suburbs like Cicero. Most of them sympathised with Cicero’s white residents and their belief that an influx of AA would cause local schools to deteriorate and property values to plummet.

Question 43

what did the Chicago campaign show

Answer 43

It showed that the activities of older CR groups in the ghettos had little positive impact

Question 44

urban riots - radicalisation

Answer 44

During the five so-called long hot summers of 1964-68, inner-city riots became an annual summer event. The first major race riot was in Watts 1965. With 34 deaths 1000 injuries and looters arrested and over $10M of damage to white-owned businesses. It gained national attention. After Watts, every large US city outside the South had a race riot. LBJ sent federal troops to settle Detriot.

Question 45

king and watts

Answer 45

They did not suffer from dejure segregation on which MLK focused on but from poverty, defacto housing segregation and discrimination.

Question 46

johnson and riots

Answer 46

He commissioned Otto Kerner,gov of Illinois to investigate the causes and report back. In Feb 1968, the commission’s report concluded that ‘this is our basic conclusion’ our nation is moving towards two societies - one black one white - separate and unequal’. The commission established 12 reasons for the rioting. The riots angered Johnson who felt that he had done more than any previous president to help AA. Their exposure in the media challenged the progress many felt that the US had been making in social justice - a tension that Johnson would not be able to resolve. The media focus exposed the economic problems that were so prevalent in the ghettos, once again showing that the poor in America were often denied access to the ‘dream’. Johnson achieved a legislative revolution for AA despite enormous problems. He was helped by the unrelenting pressure of the CRM and media coverage. Economic issues became the principal issue

Question 47

causes of urban riots

Answer 47

The FBI blamed the misery of ghetto life and communist agitation. LBJ blamed poverty and despair. 8% of whites lived below the poverty line, 30% of blacks did so. 18% of whites lived in substandard housing, compared to 50% of non-whites btw 1959 and 65, the number of poor Americans decreased from 39M to 33M, but the % of poor AA increased from 28 to 31%. Black unemployment was twice that of whites but the riots could not just have been about unemployment because in Detroit 80% of those arrested had well-paid jobs. Johnson explained that it was more likely bad housing. Kerner Commission blamed white racism above all, saying that AA saw the police as the ‘occupying army of white America, a hostile power’. The absence of black policemen fuelled ghetto tensions against white police outsiders

Question 48

other causes of the urban riots

Answer 48

Johnsons extravagant GS rhetoric raised hopes that were dashed which provoked riots
The assassination of MLK in 1968 provoked major riots in 100 cities and claimed $48M in damages
The impact of change in the south. AA outside the south felt that protests brought improvements and were resentful that although the south had changed nothing had been done for the ghettos of the North and West

Question 49

why did the whites not want to help

Answer 49

Kerner report recommended increased expenditure on the ghettos but most whites did not want to pay extra taxes to improve the ghettos particularly after the vietnam war led to tax rises. White did not want to ease ghetto overcrowding by welcoming black residents to their neighbourhoods, property prices would plummet and black children from deprived backgrounds might hold back white children in school and damage their employment prospects

Question 50

the radicalisation of SNCC and CORE

Answer 50

Many ghetto residents felt that organisations such as the NAACP and SCLC knew little about ghetto life and were unhelpful and ineffective. Many younger black activists criticised MLK, his emphasis on the South, the white mans Christian religion and non-violence none of which seemed helpful to the ghettos. Others looked to new leaders like M X and Carmicheal. Their advocacy of self-defence seemed to be a more appropriate response to white oppression than Kings love thine enemy. SNCC members were disillusioned over the slow progress towards racial equality and the lack of federal protection during the SNCCs voter registration campaign in 1964, Carmichael was elected as SNCC leader replacing less militant John Lewis. CORE also elected a more radical leader - Floyd McKissick who replaced James Farmer - youth organisations excluded white members SNCC from 1966 CORE from 1968 and declared non-violence was approariate if black people needed to defend themselves

Question 51

where was the radicalisation demonstrated

Answer 51

The radicalisation was demonstrated in the Meredith March 1966 where CORE and SNCC members took a more confrontational and militant stance.

Question 52

meredith march

Answer 52

James Meredith planned a 220-mile walk from Memphis, Tennesse to Jackson Mississippi to encourage AA to vote - he was shot and made temporarily immobilised, and black orgs declared that they would continue his walk. There were 400 marchers by the third day, including MLK and Stokely Carmicheal. Black divisions damaged the March. The NAACP wanted it to focus national attention on the civil rights bill and withdrew when Carmicheal criticised it. King welcomed white participants, but SNCC rejected them. Carmicheal was arrested and whites waved confederate flags. When released, he urged the burnings of every courthouse in Mississippi and demanded Black Power. Crowds took up the chant, King tried to encourage chants of freedom now but it was drowned out by Black Power as the increased militancy could decrease white sympathy and funding. King urged non-violence and urged Johnson to send in Federal troops but as in Selma, he refused. Meredith felt excluded and began a separate march

Question 53

meaning of Black Power to different people

Answer 53

For some, it meant black supremacy or revolution - Elijah Mohammed
SNCC Floyd McKissick - ‘political power, economic power and a new self-image for Negroes’
Conservative Black Republican Nathan Wright equated Black Power with black capitalism and organised conferences in Newark in 1967 and Philly in 1968 won support from SCLC and Nixon
King called it ‘a slogan without a programme’ but when people persisted in using the phrase he gave it more positive connations

Question 54

what black militant group emerged

Answer 54

Black Panthers

Question 55

when were the Black Panthers established

Answer 55

Oct 1966

Question 56

who organised the black panthers

Answer 56

Huey Newton and Bobby Seale

Question 57

what idea did Black Panthers adopt

Answer 57

They adopted black paramilitary uniform and they had a radical and nationalistic manifesto

Question 58

what did the Black Panthers seek

Answer 58

They sought :
Federal Government compensation to AA for slavery
Freedom for incarcerated AA and black juries when black people were tried
Black exemption from Military service
UN-supervised referendum of AA for the purpose of determining the will of black people as to their national identity
No police brutality
Improvements in ghettos living conditions

Question 59

where were the black panthers popular in

Answer 59

in the ghettos

Question 60

why were the black panthers popular in the ghettos

Answer 60

They were popular in the ghettos, especially for their emphasis on self-help, they set up ghetto clinics to advise on health, welfare and legal rights and lessons to educate young people on black history. They provided childcare for working mothers and free food. For example in 1970, the Souther Carolina Branch provided free breakfast and served over 1700 meals weekly to the poor

Question 61

black panthers and the police

Answer 61

They followed police in ghettos armed in order to expose police brutality. This led to violent shootouts. In 1967, they surrounded the California state capitol accusing them of racism. They engaged in petty crime and sought confrontation with and advocated the killing of police officers, they were targeted and destroyed by the police and FBI from 1967-9

Question 62

why did Black Power Decline

Answer 62

It peaked in 1970 but this was followed by a swift decline because -
The movement was ill-defined which contributed to poor organisation and disagreements over aims
the movement never really produced a persuasive and effective blue print for change - it advocated separatism
Female supporters of black power found their role limited - turned to feminism
SNCC and CORE became more militant and expelled whites - lost their white liberal funding - SNCC ceased to exist in 1973

Question 63

what had the Black Power movement achieved

Answer 63

They gave useful practical help to ghetto dwellers and raised the morale of many black Americans esp by teaching courses on black history and culture. They kept ghetto problems on the political agenda and helped ensure the federal govts promotion of affirmative action. On the other hand, some have argued that the Black Power contributed to the demise of an effective CRM. Ghetto rioters and armed Black Panthers helped decrease White Sympathy that had been key to the progress of non-violent CR activists. Can be argued that the CRM would have lost momentum and effectiveness regardless as the Northern Ghetto problems continued.

Question 64

Why did some civil rights groups radicalise after 1965?

Answer 64

The 1964 and 1965 Acts only helped the south
Economic injustice
Disillusionment with the Great Society
Police brutality
Vietnam War
Inadequate Housing
De facto discrimination still existed
Voting injustices and inequalities still remained