CSI - Diabetes Flashcards
What is meant by prediabetes?
- blood sugars are higher than usual, but not high enough to be diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes
- patients are at high risk of developing Type 2 diabetes
- Not a clinical term recognised by WHO, but it’s starting to be used more by healthcare professionals and in the media to describe people who are at high risk of
Type 2 diabetes
What are other names for prediabetes?
Borderline Diabetes
Impaired Glucose Regulation (IGR)
Non-diabetic hyperglycaemia
Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG) together with Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)
What are the symptoms of prediabetes?
- there are no symptoms of prediabetes
- if you start to have any of the symptoms of Type 2 diabetes it means you have probably already
developed it
What are modifiable factors increasing the risk of diabetes?
Modifiable:
smoking
History of high blood pressure
Being overweight, especially with centripetal obesity
sedentary lifestyle (Being ‘physically inactive’ means not doing enough physical activity. Being
‘sedentary’ means sitting or lying down for long periods.)
alcohol
What are non-modifiable factors increasing the risk of diabetes?
Non-modifiable:
older age; more at risk if white and over 40 or over 25 and Afro-Caribbean, Black African,
or South Asian
having a parent, brother, sister or child with
diabetes
gestational diabetes
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS is associated with
insulin resistance)
Mental health conditions e.g. schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, depression
Antipsychotic medication (risk is quite low)
How does diabetes occur? What % of patients have what type?
About 90% of people with diabetes have Type 2 diabetes. It
can come on slowly (insidious onset), usually over the age of 40.
The signs may not be obvious, or there may be no signs
at all, therefore it might be up to 10 years before diagnosis
What is the NHS diabetes prevention programme?
NHS Diabetes Prevention Programme
A joint commitment from NHS England, Public Health England and Diabetes UK, to deliver at scale,
evidence based behavioural interventions for individuals identified as being at high risk of developing Type 2 diabetes
Why is the NHS Diabetes Prevention Programme important?
Why implement it?
many cases of Type 2 diabetes are preventable
there is strong international evidence that behavioural interventions can significantly
reduce the risk of developing the condition, through reducing weight, increasing physical
activity and improving the diet of those at high risk
diabetes treatment currently accounts for around 10% of the annual NHS budget
What are the aims of the NHS Diabetes Prevention Programme important?
Long-term aims:
reduce the incidence of Type 2 diabetes
reduce the incidence of complications associated with diabetes -heart, stroke, kidney, eye
and foot problems related to diabetes
reduce health inequalities associated with incidence of diabetes
What is the intervention of the NHS DPP that they provide?
The NHS DPP has three core goals:
• achieving a healthy weight
• achievement of dietary recommendations
• achievement of CMO physical activity
recommendations
What is the eligibility criteria for the NHS DPP?
Eligibility:
individuals eligible for inclusion have ‘non-diabetic hyperglycaemia’ (NDH), defined as having an HbA1c 42 - 47 mmol/mol (6.0 - 6.4%) or a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) of 5.5 - 6.9 mmol/l
the blood result indicating NDH must be within the last 12 months to be eligible for referral and only the most recent blood reading can be used
only individuals aged 18 years or over are eligible for the intervention
What is Metformin?
Metformin:
used first-line for treatment of T2DM
reduces the amount of sugar your liver releases into your blood
makes your body respond better to insulin by stimulating GLUT-4 translocation
doesn’t cause weight gain, unlike some other diabetes medicines
lower risk of hypoglycaemia
best to take with a meal to reduce the side effects
most common side effects are feeling and being sick, diarrhoea, stomach-ache and going off your food
What is behaviour insights in terms of treatment?
Behavioural insights:
an approach that uses knowledge of how and why people behave, to encourage positive behaviour change
behavioural insights consider all aspects of behaviour (e.g. psychology, social anthropology, and behavioural economics) and acknowledge the importance of the fast and intuitive automatic system in driving behaviour
behavioural insights are most helpful where individuals want to make positive behaviour changes but struggle to do so
What is the EAST framework for behaviour change?
- Make it easy
- Make it attractive
- Make it social
- Make it timely
What are the 3 primary routes of being referred to the NHS DPP?
Referral routes into the programme:
Referral routes vary according to local finding pathways. Three primary mechanisms for referral are:
1. those who have already been identified as having an appropriately elevated risk level (HbA1c or FPG) in the past and who have been included on a register of patients with high HbA1c or FPG
- the NHS Health Check programme, which is currently available for individuals between 40 and 74; NHS Health Checks includes a diabetes filter, those identified to be at high risk through stage 1 of the filter are offered a blood test to confirm risk
- those who are identified with non-diabetic hyperglycaemia through opportunistic assessment as part of routine clinical care
What are the core defects that lead to T2DM?
Core defects in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM):
insulin resistance in muscle and the liver
impaired insulin secretion by the pancreatic β-cells
What is the mnemonic to remember the causes of hyperglycaemia?
RULING HIVE
R - increased glucose Reabsorption
U - decreased glucose Uptake
L - increased Lipolysis
I - Inflammation
N - neurotransmitter Dysfunction
G - increased Glucagon secretion
H - increased Hepatic glucose production
I - decreased Insulin secretion
V - Vascular insulin resistance
E - decreased incretin Effect
How is insulin involved in glucose metabolism?
How insulin is involved in glucose metabolism
Insulin (protein 1) from the blood binds to insulin receptor (protein 2) on skeletal
muscle/adipose cell
this induces blood glucose to be transported through the Glut-4 receptor (protein 3) via
facilitated diffusion into the skeletal muscle/adipose cell
glucose is converted to pyruvate via glycolysis (A)
pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA via the link reaction/pyruvate oxidation (B)
acetyl CoA is converted to ATP (C) via the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
when inside the cell, 1 molecule of glucose can generate ~30ATP
If your blood glucose is high but you are insulin resistant…
if your blood glucose is high but you are insulin resistant:
glucose is not taken into skeletal muscle and adipose cells
glut 1, 2, 3 cells (i.e. endothelium, erythrocytes, kidney, small intestine, liver, pancreatic beta
cells, neurones, placenta) will take in lots of glucose
Insulin mediates glucose uptake via Glut-4.
RULING HIVE: R
- Increased glucose Reabsorption
-Increased renal glucose reabsorption by the sodium/glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) and
the increased threshold for glucose spillage in the urine contribute to the maintenance of
hyperglycaemia.
RULING HIVE: U
- Decreased glucose Uptake
-due to beta-cell failure -> less insulin is secreted
RULING HIVE: L
Increased Lipolysis
-Insulin resistance in adipocytes results in accelerated lipolysis and increased plasma free fatty acid (FFA) levels, both of which aggravate the insulin resistance in muscle and the liver and
contribute to β-cell failure.
RULING HIVE: I
Inflammation
-Inflammation activates and increases the expression of several proteins that suppress insulinsignalling pathways, making the human body less responsive to insulin and increasing the risk
for insulin resistance.
RULING HIVE: N
Neurotransmitter dysfunction
-Resistance to the appetite-suppressive effects of a number of hormones, as well as low brain
dopamine and increased brain serotonin levels contribute to weight gain, which exacerbates
the underlying resistance
RULING HIVE: G
Increased Glucagon secretion
-insulin inhibits glucagon secretion from alpha cells
-over time after lots of insulin is being produced, alpha cells become insulin resistant
glucagon secretion increases blood glucose increases
RULING HIVE: H
Increased Hepatic glucose production
-increased glucagon levels and enhanced hepatic sensitivity to glucagon contribute to the
excessive glucose production by the liver
RULING HIVE: I
Decreased Insulin secretion
Beta-cell failure due to:
GLP1 resistance
Insulin resistant adipose, muscle, and liver tissue
RULING HIVE: V
- Vascular insulin resistance
-prolonged exposure to high levels of insulin causes increased vasculature resistance
RULING HIVE: E
Decreased incretin Effect
-the incretin ‘glucagon-like peptide 1’ (GLP1) stimulates β-cells to secrete insulin