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Evidence Based Nursing (505) > Cue Cards > Flashcards

Cue Cards Flashcards

1
Q

What was Florence Nightengale’s significance in nursing?

A

First to develop and publish a philosophy and theory of health and nursing.

Identified that people have personal needs.

Established standards for management

Established formal nursing education and a respected occupation for women.

Promoted sanitation, cleanliness, nourishment, ventilation, nutrition and routines.

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2
Q

What years did Florence Nightengale make these impressions?

A

1851-1869

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3
Q

Who was the first trained nurse in Australia and what date?

A

Lucy Osburn- 1864

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4
Q

What was significant about Lucy Osburn?

A

She was trained in England and founded the Florence nightingale school of Nursing in Australia in 1868

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5
Q

When was the first nursing training school in New Zealand?

A

1884

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6
Q

When did the “Nurse Registration Act” get enacted and what person’s work have great significance on the formation of the act?

A

1901 and Grace Neil

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7
Q

When was the germ theory founded and by who?

A

1860-1930.
Louis Pasteur linked microorganisms to disease.
Alexander Flemming discovered penicillin

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8
Q

When was New Zealand Nurses Organisation formed? (NZNO)

A

1934

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9
Q

When did NZ get free hospital care?

A

1938

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10
Q

When was the Nursing Council of NZ established? (NCNZ)

A

1971

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11
Q

What does ICN stand for?

A

Internation council of nursing

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12
Q

What is ICN’s definition of nursing?

A

Nursing encompasses autonomous and
collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well and in all settings. Nursing includes the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and the care of the ill, disabled and dying people. Advocacy, promotion of a safe environment, research, and participation in shaping health policy and education are also key nursing Roles.

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13
Q

Who is Grace Neil?

A

A London-trained nurse, Grace Neill, was employed as the Assistant Inspector of Hospitals in the late 1890s.

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14
Q

Why was Grace Neil important to NZ nursing

A

She recognised the need to introduce and maintain standards in nurse training. In 1899, she became a foundation member of the International Council of Nurses. Her representations resulted in the Nurses Registration Act of 1901, which provided for a course of 3 years’ training and a state examination followed by registration. This Act made New Zealand the first country in the world to regulate nurses nationally (Tennant, 1993).”

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15
Q

What is the definition of scope of practice?

A

Scope as defined as
“A framework of nursing activities that particular nurses are educated, competent and authorised to perform within a specific context”

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16
Q

What are the three scopes of practice for nurses in New Zealand

A

Enrolled Nurse, Registered Nurse, Nurse Practitioner

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17
Q

What does evidence-based practice consist of?

A

Clinical expertise, patient values, best available research evidence

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18
Q

What is nursing theory?

A

Nursing theory provided rational & knowledgeable reasons for nursing actions based on organised written descriptions of what nursing is and what nurses do

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19
Q

Whats the definition of discipline?

A

The domain of knowledge that is generated through research and higher education

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20
Q

Whats the definition of profession?

A

Individuals that are disciplined, follow ethical requirements, have specialised skills and knowledge that is acquired through higher education.

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21
Q

What is the definition of professionalism?

A

Is demonstrated by the qualities, practise and conduct that demonstrates competence, and the ethical, and legal conventions of the profession.

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22
Q

What are the four types of knowledge?

A

Science, process, philosophy and practice.

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23
Q

What are the sources of knowledge?

A

Traditional (passed down, not necessarily EB)
Experimental (experience and reflection)
Scientific (research evidence)
Patient and whanau (their journey)
Local (audits, local data)

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24
Q

Define theory

A

“organized, coherent and systematic articulation of a set of statements related to significant questions”

in a discipline and communicated as a meaningful whole.”

A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something

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25
Q

Who are some nursing theorists

A

Florence Nightengale, Faye Abdullah, Virginia Henderson, Patricia Benner & Judith Wrubel.

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26
Q

What’s adaption theory?

A

Defines adaption as the adjustment of living things to the environmental conditions. Adaption is a continuously occurring process that effects change and involves interaction and response

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27
Q

What’s systems theory?

A

Describes how to break whole things into parts and then learn how the parts work as systems. E.G. respiratory system

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28
Q

What’s the developmental theory?

A

Outlines the process of growth and development of humans as orderly and predictable. Beginning with conception and ending with death.

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29
Q

Define ontology

A

Study of the reality of being. study of existence.
Ontology is also the study of how we determine if things exist or not, as well as the classification of existence. It attempts to take things that are abstract and establish that they are, in fact, real.

“Ontology,a philosophical term, is the study of what is reality, of being. Or, as described bySchneider and colleagues (2013) , ontology is the study of existence. As ontologies are philosophical concepts that emanate from belief and value systems, there can be differing opinions about which ontologies are appropriate to develop nursing knowledge.

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30
Q

Define Paradigm

A

Set of beliefs and practices shared by communities or researchers. E.G. religion. Germ theory

Implicit in an ontology is aparadigm, that is, a ‘set of beliefs and practices, shared by communities of researchers, which regulate inquiry within disciplines’ (Weaver & Olson, 2006, p. 459)

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31
Q

What three documents act as New Zealand’s constitution?

A

The Constitution Act 1986
The New Zeland Bill of Rights Act 1990
Tiriti o Waitangi 1840

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32
Q

What are four important rights from the NZ Bill of rights act 1990?

A
  1. Right not to be deprived of life
  2. Right not to be subjected to torture or cruel treatment.
  3. Right to not be subjected to medicine or scientific experimentation
  4. Right to refuse to undergo medical treatment
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33
Q

Whats the primary function of NZ nursing council (NCNZ)

A

To protect the health and safety of members of the public by ensuring nurses are component and fit to practice. Resisters nurses. Sets ongoing competence requirements and issuing practice certificates. Sets scopes of practice. Sets state examination

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34
Q

What is the primary function of NZNO?

A

Professional and industrial leadership. Representation for nurses, midwives and HC workers. Sets standards for competencies for specialty areas of practice. Provides indemnity insurance

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35
Q

What are the four RN competentices in NZ?

A

1) Professional responsability
2) management of nursing care
3) interpersonal relationships
4) Interprofessional HC and quality improvement

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36
Q

What does being competent in domain one (professional responsibility) look like?

A

Competent professionally, legally, ethically and culturally. Taking accountability promotes safe consumer environment. Consumer independence and quality of life.

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37
Q

What does being competent in domain two (management of nursing care) look like?

A

Competent in assessing and managing health and consumer care. Supported by nursing Knowledge and EB practice.

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38
Q

What does being competent in domain three (interpersonal relationships) look like?

A

Competencies related to interpersonal and therapeutic communication with health consumers and other nursing staff.

So..
Develops and maintains effective relationships with others.
Relates well to people from varied backgrounds and in different situations
Shows understanding, courtesy, tact, empathy, concern, and politeness.
Relates to people in an open, friendly, and professional manner.

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39
Q

What does being competent in domain four (interprofessional HC and quality improvement) look like?

A

Competent in evaluating the effectiveness of care and promoting a nursing perspective within the interprofessional activities of the team.

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40
Q

What is the purpose of the NCNZ code of conduct

A

Nurses are expected to uphold exemplary standards of conduct because they have the trust of the public to undertake their professional role. Nurses must have a high standard of behaviour in their personal lives.
Values- respect, trust, partnership, integrity.

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41
Q

Define ethics

A

Moral philosophy is the discipline concerned with morally good and bad

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42
Q

Define bioethics

A

Relates specifically to life and in healthcare and includes the following subject areas- Consent, genetics, beginning and end of life.

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43
Q

Define nursing ethics

A

Nursing ethics aren’t limited to bioethics but include nursing concepts- Culture, care, person, health, healing, environment

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44
Q

Define Autonomy

A

Support clients to make informed decisions individually or collectively

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45
Q

Define justice

A

Dignity, needs and values of client are respected

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46
Q

Define veracity

A

Communication is open, honest and truthful

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47
Q

Define tika

A

Self-awareness and knowledge of whanau traditions enables correct core

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48
Q

Define Rangatiratanga

A

Practice supports whanau to make own health decisions

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49
Q

Define kotahitanga

A

reciprocal engagement between individual/ whanau and nurture enables joint decision making

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50
Q

Define beneficence

A

partnerships developed that are safe and beneficial for the client

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51
Q

Define fidelity

A

Trust is promoted by honouring commitments and providing a rationale for decisions

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52
Q

Define morals

A

Personal or communal standards of right and wrong

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53
Q

define value

A

is an abstract concept encompassing a person’s fundamental beliefs and ideas about the worth of something and acts as a standard to guide one’s behaviour

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54
Q

Who wrote the code of ethics?

A

NZNO

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55
Q

Who wrote the code of conduct?

A

NCNZ

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56
Q

When is written consent required?

A

When a consumer is participating in research, when the consumer is going under general anaesthetic, and when there is a significant risk of adverse effects on the consumer.

57
Q

The does the OPC (Office of Privacy Commissioner) do?

A

Investigates complaints about privacy breaches and run education programmes.

58
Q

Why was the birth of nursing as a profession in the 1950s in the USA important?

A

Nurses wanted to move away from medicine

59
Q

What’s scientific knowledge?

A

Can be quantitative research and qualitative. Based on evidence

60
Q

What’s the knowledge process?

A

A series of actions that need a direct goal, require feedback. Nursing process

61
Q

What is philosophy knowledge?

A

Understanding of the world, beliefs and values

62
Q

What is knowledge practice?

A

information developed by a team

63
Q

When was the Nurse Registration Act introduced?

A

1901- (grace Neil’s work. 3-year course, state exam and registration)

64
Q

When was the Misuse of drugs act introduced and what was its purpose

A

1975- Misuse of drugs act. Builds of Narcotics Act 1965 and further provisions for the prevention of drug misuse.

65
Q

When was the Medicines Act introduced and what was the purpose

A

1981- Medicines Act. Ensures medicines and equipment used in NZ are safe and effective.

66
Q

When was the Medicines Regulations introduced and what was the purpose

A

1984- Medicines regulations. No person other than the authorised prescriber may dispense drugs.

67
Q

When was The Constitution Act introduced and what was the purpose

A

1986
It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles of governance and establishes the powers of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of state.

68
Q

When was the Health and Disability Commissioners Act introduced

A

1994

69
Q

When was the The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act introduced and what was the purpose?

A

1990- Protects the civil and political rights of all New Zealanders. The Act covers the following categories of rights and freedoms: Life and security of the person. Democratic and civil rights

70
Q

When was the Health and Disability Services (Safety) Act introduced

A

2001

71
Q

When was the Health practitioner competence assurance act introduced and what was the purpose

A

2003- Protects the health and safety of the public by providing mechanisms to ensure lifelong competence

72
Q

When was the Medicines Amendment Act introduced and what was the purpose

A

2005- Medicines Amendment Act 2005. Substitutes the word drugs for medicines.

73
Q

When was the last code of conduct update and who updated it?

A

2012- Updated code of conduct NCNZ

74
Q

When was the privacy act introduced and what was its purpose?

A

2020- Privacy Act. Sets out 13 privacy principles that guide how personal information can be collected, used, stored and disclosed.

75
Q

What are the key concepts of the Privacy Code (2020)

A

Purpose: Agencies must know why they are collecting health information and collect only the information
they need. Once health information has been collected from a patient for a particular purpose, it can be used
or disclosed for that purpose without additional consent.

Openness: Agencies need to let patients know how their information is going to be used and disclosed so
the patients can make decisions about whether to provide it.

Information is kept confidential, may have ongoing use, is treated as sensitive, and used for the purposes for which it was originally collected and they will be told about those purposes.

76
Q

What is quantitative correlational research?

A

Quantitative Correlational Research is a Non-Experimental type of research.

In a correlational design, you measure variables without manipulating any of them. You can test whether your variables change together, but you can’t be sure that one variable caused a change in another.

The strength of the relationship varies from a score of 0 (no correlation at all) to a score of −1 (perfect negative correlation, in which one increases as the other decreases) or +1 (perfect positive correlation, with both variables increasing or decreasing together).

A correlational study measures all available values of an independent variable.

77
Q

What is quantitative Quasi-experimental research?

A

In an experimental design, you manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Other variables are controlled so they can’t impact the results.

Quasi-experiments usually select only a certain range of values of an independent variable. They compare groups with different circumstances or treatments to find cause-and-effect links. It draws statistical conclusions from quantitative data.

Often conducted in nursing to examine the effects of nursing interventions on outcomes.

78
Q

What is quantitative Experimental research?

A

To examine cause-and-effect relationships between variables under highly controlled conditions. These are often conducted in a laboratory setting.

79
Q

What is qualitative Phenomenology research?

A

The purpose of phenomenology (both a philosophy and a research method) is to describe experiences as they are lived by the subjects being studied. Analysis of data provides information about the meaning of the experience within each person’s own reality, the lived experience (e.g. the experience of pain following hip replacement for Kym Tran).

80
Q

What is qualitative Grounded theory research?

A

Considered the ‘parent’ of qualitative research (De Chesnay, 2014), the basis of grounded theory methodology is the discovery of how people describe their own reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions in a social scene. The findings are grounded in the data from subjects and are used to formulate concepts and to generate a theory of the experience, supported by examples from the data, e.g. coping with a seriously ill child or barriers to evidence-based nursing.

81
Q

What is qualitative Ethnography research?

A

Developed by the discipline of anthropology, ethnographical research is used to examine issues of a culture that are of interest to nursing or midwifery.

82
Q

What is qualitative Historical research?

A

Historical research examines events of the past to increase understanding of the nursing profession today. Many historical studies focus on nursing leaders, but there is increasing interest in the historical patterns of nursing practice.

83
Q

What is qualitative Action research?

A

Action research is undertaken by the people whom it seeks to help, i.e. practitioners who research their own professional actions.

It is a cyclical research process incorporating planning, intervention, reflection, and modification.

An integral part of action research is the learning that occurs for the participant-researchers through studying practice and how that learning influences the situation.

84
Q

What are the three mixed-method research kinds?

A

Convergent, Explanatory Sequential, Exploratory Sequential

85
Q

Define Research

A

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods.

86
Q

Define Inductive reasoning

A

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general.

87
Q

Define Deductive reasoning

A

Deductive reasoning is when you move from a general conclusion to a specific one

88
Q

Why it is important for nurses to critically appraise research

A

It allows clinicians to use research evidence reliably and efficiently. Critical appraisal is intended to enhance the healthcare professional’s skill to determine whether the research evidence is true (free of bias) and relevant to their patients.

89
Q

Why research is important to nursing as a profession and when providing patient care?

A

Research helps nurses determine effective best practices and improve patient care.

90
Q

How is nursing research implemented?

A

A common technique for nursing research is using the PICO process.

In quantitative research:
Population: the population (people) to be studied.
Intervention: identify what you plan to do for the group; what you will test.
Comparison: the main alternative to the intervention.
Outcome(s): what can be measured to show if the intervention was effective?

In qualitative research, the PICO acronym stands for:
Population: the population to be studied.
Phenomenon of Interest: the experience or event to be studied or explored.
COntext: the setting background, why the question is relevant

91
Q

Why it is important for nurses to research

A

It allows clinicians to use research evidence reliably and efficiently. Critical appraisal is intended to enhance the healthcare professional’s skill to determine whether the research evidence is true (free of bias) and relevant to their patients.

92
Q

What are the four/five quantitative research designs

A

Descriptive
Correlational
Quasiexperimental
Experimental - don’t forget to explain randomisation and control

93
Q

What are descriptive (quantitative) studies

A

If there is no intervention then it is a descriptive study.
Descriptive research is mostly conducted with the intention of gaining a better understanding of the study population.

To explore and describe events in real-life situations, describing concepts and identifying relationships between and among events. Often used to generate new knowledge about topics with little or no prior research.

94
Q

What are randomised control trials (quantitative)

A

Evaluates the causality between interventions and use randomization. Random sample, control group, and intervention.

95
Q

What are experimental studies?

A

RCT and quasi-experimental

96
Q

What are the two main kinds of variables?

A

Independant and dependant?

97
Q

What is the word for a variable that may alter (cause bias) the study’s results?

A

confounding

98
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

A variable that is expected to influence the outcome (dependent variable)

99
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable that is changed due to the independent variable. Depends on the independent variable.

100
Q

What are the six qualitative research methodologies?

A

Phenomenology
Ethnography
Qualitative descriptive/exploratory
Grounded Theory
Historical
Action research

101
Q

What is a phenomenological study?

A

A phenomenological study explores what people experienced and focuses on their experience of a phenomenon. Includes interviewing and looking for patterns in a message. The success of a phenomenological study depends upon the subjects being able to articulate their experiences.
Main data source in in-depth conversations.

There are descriptive and interpretive. Descriptive describes the lived experience.

Very small samples. People who we are interviewing have experienced what we are studying.

102
Q

What is an Ethnography study?

A

Ethnography involves observing people in their own environment to understand their experiences, perspectives and everyday practices.

A classic example of ethnographic research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island, living within the society on said island for years, and researching its people and culture through a process of sustained observation and participation.

103
Q

What is a Qualitative descriptive/exploratory study?

A

A descriptive exploratory qualitative approach is useful in summarising and understanding an area of interest. No external intervention

Descriptive research aims to describe or define the topic at hand.

Explanatory research is aims to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do.

104
Q

What is grounded theory study?

A

Grounded theory sets out to discover or construct theory from data, systematically obtained and analysed using comparative analysis.
New theories on real-word data.
First, collect and analyse data then come up with a theory. You collect data then analyse and do those steps over and over again. Cyclical process

105
Q

Whats mixed method research

A

‘Mixed methods’ is a research approach whereby researchers collect and analyse both quantitative and qualitative data within the same study.

106
Q

What’s the role of Te Tāhū Hauora

A

The Commission came into being in 2010 – Under New Zealand Public Health and Disability Amendment Act 2010 to ensure all New Zealanders receive the best health and disability care within our available resources.

Monitoring and improving the quality of health/disability support services. (Helping providers improve this)

We have the position of being alongside the health and disability sector, in a supportive and enabling capacity.

The vision is quality health for all

107
Q

What are Te Tahu Hauroa’s strategic priorities? what do they want to achieve?

A

Improving the experience for consumers and whānau

Enacting Te Tiriti o Waitangi, supporting mana motuhake

Achieving health equity

Strengthening systems for quality services

Involve, Inform, Influence, and Improve

108
Q

What are the four components of the clinical governance framework (Te Tāhū Hauora)

A

1) Consumer engagement and participation
2) Clinical effectiveness
3) Quality improvement and patient safety
4) Engaged effective workforce

109
Q

What does the “Consumer engagement” component of the clinical governance framework (Te Tāhū Hauora) entail

A

Enabling people and whānau as active members of the health team.

The policy includes principles that reflect:
Whakawhanaungatanga
Manaakitanga
Tikanga
Rangatiratanga

110
Q

Define Whakawhanaungatanga

A

Building trust and taking time to get to know whanau, delivering education in a way whanau understand and can access more easily

111
Q

Define Manaakitanga

A

being done with rather than done to,taking apartnership approach. Consider how they leave care with their mana enhanced?
Fair treatment

112
Q

Define Tikanga

A

understanding us, listening to us–
‘if you want our trust,then you need to listen to our people’s story’ and‘the doctor just shut it down–they didn’t understand what it was’

113
Q

Define Rangatiratanga

A

allowing whanau to lead their plan-
‘my whanau is my care team’

114
Q

What does the “Clinical effectiveness” component of the clinical governance framework (Te Tāhū Hauora) entail

A

Using- Research, Data, Experience to see clinical effectiveness.

They get information from:
Patient Experience Surveys in primary and secondary care – patient’s voice and experience is an important part of understanding effectiveness

Atlas of healthcare variation – which includes maternity

Quality safety markers

115
Q

What does the “Quality improvement and patient safety” component of the clinical governance framework (Te Tāhū Hauora) entail

A

Having programmes in place to maximise patient safety.

Some of these you will meet in clinical practice, such as the adult or maternity early warning vital signs chart; the pressure injury prevention programme; and preventing harm through the 5 moments of hand hygiene.

116
Q

What does “Engaged and effective workforce” component of the clinical governance framework (Te Tāhū Hauora) entail

A

A work force that wants the best.

A workforce that works in partnership

Is open and active in self- and peer-review. Interested and engaged in clinical-effectiveness measures.

Open to learning.

Shares knowledge with peers

117
Q

Define Psychological safety

A

‘Psychological safety is a belief that one will not be punished or humiliated for speaking up with ideas, questions, concerns, or mistakes.’

118
Q

Outline the 10 steps of the research process

A
  1. Identification of the research problem
  2. Searching and evaluating the literature
  3. Developing a researchable question, hypothesis or aim
  4. Identifying an appropriate research design or methodology
  5. Addressing ethical considerations
  6. Sampling and participant recruitment
  7. Data collection
  8. Data analysis
  9. Findings and drawing conclusions
  10. Dissemination of research findings
119
Q

When was Plunket established

A

1907

120
Q

When were backblock nurses established

A

1909

121
Q

When were Maori native nurses

A

initiated in 1897 and established in 1911 as the native nurses scheme

122
Q

What are traits of rural nurses

A
  • Flexible/ Adaptable “Jack of all trades,”
  • Autonomous and use their initiative,
  • Part of the community they serve - manage personal and professional identities,
  • Pioneers,
  • Opportunistic,
  • Build strong personal support and professional networks,
  • Adapt their practice to accommodate:
  • Rural culture,
  • Outsiders/insiders,
  • Rural health beliefs.
123
Q

Whats Rural Community Trusts

A

In the early1990s, with the creation of an internal market system for public health care delivery.

Rural health services were given the option of establishing themselves as ‘community trusts’, owning and
running their own services.

Community trusts have since become a
feature of rural health care in New Zealand.

An expectation was that community trusts would facilitate community participation.

Rural nurses collaborated and developed new models of practice.

124
Q

What are global healthcare challenges

A

That the care given isn’t really based on EBP. Only 20% of what healthcare providers do is based on evidence- 80% is not. It takes 15-20 years to get evidence into practice. Our patients aren’t getting the care they deserve.

Globally the goal is to provide evidence-based, cost-effective, quality care that will Improve practice and improve patient outcomes.

125
Q

What is the Cochrane model?

A

Question, experiment, analyze, record

126
Q

EBP and EB decision-making is based on

A

External evidence, internal evidence, patient preferences and values.

127
Q

Why should you use evidence-based practice? (5)

A

This leads to the highest quality care and patient outcome, reduces HC costs, increases clinician empowerment and role satisfaction, reduces turnover rate, meets public expectations

128
Q

Whats a systematic review

A

A systematic review is a type of review that uses repeatable methods to find, select, and synthesize all available evidence.

129
Q

What is FAME used for and what does it mean

A

Feasibility, appropriateness, meaningfulness and effectiveness

130
Q

What are the Five Steps of EBP

A

ASK - Convert clinical scenarios into a structured and
answerable clinical question

ACQUIRE - Search for the research

APPRAISE - the Evidence

APPLY - the results of the research to clinical practice

ASSESS-ADJUST- to evaluate your performance

131
Q

What is JBI Model of Evidence-Based Healthcare

A

Global health, evidence generation, evidence synthesis, evidence transfer, evidence implementation

132
Q

Where can you find information about nursing practice?

A

Lippincott procedures
JBI
Cochrane library
BPAC

133
Q

Who did the first EBP movement?

A

Abraham Flexner

134
Q

What is Abraham Flexner’s significance

A

In 1910 Abraham Flexner was commissioned to survey American and Canadian medical schools. The report was named “The Flexner” and represented a major effort to reform medical education by placing it on a scientific foundation. His findings revealed that most medical schools offered lax clinical training, a curriculum not based on science, and a motivation that promoted profit rather than public service (Flexner, 1910).

The Flexner Report established an educational quality standard that many of the existing medical schools could not meet. Therefore, more than half of all medical schools closed by 1935 (Beck, 2004).

135
Q

Who was the second person who influences the EBM movement

A

Archibald Cochrane

136
Q

What was Archibald Cochrane’s significance

A

Aimed to establish a rational, systematic basis for determining what treatments should be covered by health care.
Cochrane argued that because resources for health care are inevitably limited, it is essential that scarce dollars be allocated only for procedures of demonstrated worth.

He argued that randomized controlled trials (RCTs) offer the most unbiased, reliable method to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments. Accordingly, findings from high-quality RCTs are given greater credence than those from observational studies, case studies, and expert opinion when determining whether a treatment is effective.

137
Q

What are the best levels of evidence

A

Meta-analysis, systematic reviews and RCT

138
Q

What are the worst levels of evidence

A

Case reports and animal research

139
Q

Epistemology

A

the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion.

Evidence Based Nursing (505) (5 decks)

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