Cultural Variations in Attachment

Question 1

Describe the procedure of the study

Answer 1

• Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour .
• Aim was to find inter-cultural differences (between cultures) and intra-cultural differences (within cultures)

Question 2

Describe the findings of the study

Answer 2

• Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg found small differences. Secure attachment was most common in every country. Insecure-avoidant was next (expect for Japan and Isreal - collectivist). Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than variation between cultures suggests cultural differences may not actually be as vast as one may think
• Global patterns across cultures was smaller to that found in the US. Secure is the ‘norm’ which supports the idea that it is the best for healthy social and emotional development. Similarities support that attachment is innate.

Question 3

What is support for cultural similarities?

Answer 3

Tronick et al(1992) studied an African tribe, from Zaire, who lived in extended family groups. Infants who were looked after and breastfed by other women usually slept with their own mother. Despite different childrearing practices, at 6 months the infants showed one primary attached

Question 4

What is support for cultural differences? (Germany)

Answer 4

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found German infants were usually insecurely attached due to different childrearing practices. German culture involves interpersonal distance between parents and infants so they don’t engage in proximity-seeking in the Strange Situation

Question 5

What is support for cultural differences? (Japanese)

Answer 5

Takahashi (1990) studied 60 middle-class Japanese infants in the Strange Situation and found similar rates of securely attached to Ainsworth et al. However they showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant but 32% of insecure-resistant. In fact, 90% of their responses were so extreme the study has to be stopped. Japanese infants rarely experience separation which means they would be more distressed and appear insecure-resistant

Question 6

Give a conclusion for all the studies of cultural variation

Answer 6

• Despite cultural variations in infant care arrangements, the strongest attachments are still formed with the infant’s mother.
• Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting attachment is innate.
• However, there are still differences in the patterns of attachment that can be related to differences in cultural attitudes and practices (collectivists vs individualist cultures)

Question 7

Give evaluation for research into cultural variation (global culture)

Answer 7

• Cultural similarities may not necessarily be from innate biological influences
• According to Bowlby, the reason for universal similarities in how attachments form is because it’s an innate mechanism, unmodified by culture.
• Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest cultural similarities can be explained by mass media which spread ideas of parenting and children all over the world are exposed to similar influences.
• This mean that cultural similarities may due to our increasingly global culture

Question 8

Give evaluation for research into cultural variation (compares countries)

Answer 8

• Research conflates culture with nation
• For example, within countries there are subcultures. A study in Tokyo by van IJzendoorn and Sagi (2001) found similar attachment types to Western studies in an urban settings, whereas a more rural sample found over-representation of insecure-resistant individuals. van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg found more variation within cultures than between cultures, as data was collected on different subcultures within each country
• Suggests that great caution needs to be exercised when using the term ‘cultural variation’ and when assessing if an individual is representative of a particular culture

Question 9

Give evaluation for research into cultural variation (culturally bound)

Answer 9

• Uses a measure that is culture-bound
• For example, the Strange situation uses ‘tools’ that are related to cultural assumptions such as willingness to explore as a sign of secure attachment. But in some cultures, traditional Japanese culture, dependence rather than independence would be a sign of secure attachment. Japanese children may appear insecurely attached according to Western criteria but securely attached by Japanese standards (imposed etic).
• Strange situation lacks validity in other cultures

Question 10

Give evaluation for research into cultural variation (theory)

Answer 10

• The method itself aren’t the only thing that is culturally bound but the theory itself is rooted in American culture
• Rothbaum et al (2000) looked at the contrasts between American and Japanese culture. For example, the continuity hypothesis doesn’t have the same meaning in both cultures. Bowlby and Ainsworth proposed securely attached infants develop into more socially and emotionally competent adults. However competence is defined in terms of individuation (exploring, independent and regulating emotions). In Japan, competence is represented by the inhibition of emotional expression (not showing) and being group-oriented.
• So, high levels of insecure-attachment found in Japanese children may be explained by cultural bias in attachment theory