D1: finifhin and packaging

Question 1

Check list: getting your wine ready for bottling day:

Answer 1

1) 4months to 8 weeks ahead: assemble final blend
full chemical analysis, alc residual sugar, free so2 etc

2) 8 weeks ahead: final adjustments: alc, acidity, tannins f desired
3) 6 weeks ahead: protein stability trial and if necessary fine wine with bentonite
4) 4-6 weeks ahead: test for tartrate stability and if necessary, treat
5) 1-2 weeks ahead: add sweetenig agents eg grape concentrate, for mouthfeel and finish
6) 72- 48 hours ahead: test filterability of wine
7) 24 hrs ahead: adjust free so2
8) bottling day: adjust dissolved oxygen and co2
9) during bottling: check dissolved oxygen and so2 levels regularly and keep sample of bottle wines for quality assurance purposes

Question 2

Post fermentation clarification is trem that stands for all the processes (physical and chemical) that are used to make wine clear:

Answer 2

1) particularly sedimentation,
2) centrifugation
3) clarify the wine
- - in addition wine ay be fined and filtered

Question 3

What is sedimentation ?

Answer 3

1) if wine is tored in cool cellar conditions it will begin the process of clarification naturally with suspended matter precipitating over time
- - the particles with higher density than wine will form a sediment at the bottom of the container
- - the wine can be racked off

2) the number of rackings depend on size of the container: bigger, more
3) some premium wine only be clarified in this way: to ensure no loss of texture and flavour

4) it takes time so also a additional cost because the wine can only be released if clarified
- - if aged in barrel the sedimentation already takes place during this stage

Question 4

in many cases the winemaker will accelerate the process of clarification in high volume production where the speed of processing wine is financially important and use the following options:

Answer 4

centrifiguration and fining

Question 5

centrigiguration:

Answer 5

1) rapid process that spins the wine at high rotational speed to clarify it
2) it can replace depth filtration and allow early bottling
3) very effective with wines with a lot of matter in suspension
4) only practised in high volume wineries

Question 6

fining:

Answer 6

1) procedure where fining agent is added to speed up the process of precipitation of suspended material in wine
2) can be of protein or mineral origin
3) they remove a small proportion of colloids (microscopic particles too small to be removed by filtering)
4) it helps to clarify and to stabilise against the formation of hazes later in the bottle

5) trials in laboratory are needed to ensure the min effective amount is used
- - because many agents can remove positive compounds from wine or unstable the wine too much if too much is added

6) in addition to clarifying the wine, each fining agent has particular properties that can offer solutions to problems such as harsh tannins or browning in white wines
7) the agent and the colloid attract each other and form a solid large enough to be removed by filtration

Question 7

There are three categories of fining agents:

Answer 7

1) those that remove unstable proteins
2) those that remove phenolics that contribute undesirable colour and bitterness
3) Those that remove colour and off-odours

Question 8

Fining agents that remove unstable proteins:

Answer 8

1) must and wine contain grape derived proteins

— it is not necessary to remove these in red wines as they bind with tannins, precipitate natural and are removed when the wine is racked

2) however the proteins in white and rosé can agglomerate into a visible haze if warmed up (eg in transit)
- – this would be seen as a fault
- — as a result these wines are often fined with bentonite

Question 9

Fining agent bentonite:

Answer 9

1) a form of clay which absorbs unstable proteins and unstable colloidal colouring matter (holds moleculesof a gas, liquid or solute as a thin film on the outside surface or on internal surfaces within the material)
2) it has a minimal effect on the flavour and texture of wine

3) it does lead to colour loss in red wines and produces large amounts of sediment
- – so wines is lost when it is racked off

Question 10

Fining agents that remove phenolics that contribute undesirable colour and bitterness:

Answer 10

The fining agents listed below, may be used in conjunction with bentonite for their own properties and to avoid the risk of over fining (which in itself could make the wine unstable)

1) egg white
2) gelatin
3) casein
4) isinglass
5) vegetable protein products

Question 11

Egg white:

Answer 11

1) due to its protein content, egg white is often used in fresh or powdered form
2) it tends to be used for high quality red wines becauseof its abitlity to remove harsh tannins and clarify wine
3) it is gentle to the wine
4) as it is an allegen, it must be declared on the label if sold in EU

Question 12

Gelatin:

Answer 12

1) a protein collagen (vezelvormig eiwit) extracted from pork that aids clarification
2) removes bitterness and astringency in red and browning in white wine pressings

3) small proportion becaus it has a high risk to over fine
- - stripping flavour and character
- - risk of forming a protein haze forming later

4) it is not suitable for vegetarian wine as it is derived from animals

Question 13

Casein:

Answer 13

1) milk derived
2) removes browning from white wines and clarifies to some extend
3) must be declared as an allergen on the labels in some regions

Question 14

Isinglass:

Answer 14

1) derived from fish bladders

2) very effectivly clarifies white wines
- - giving them a bright appereance

3) smallest effective amount must be added:
- - avoid potentiol to the formation of protein haze
- - and the creation of a fishy smell

4) not suitable for vegies

Question 15

Vegetable protein products:

Answer 15

derived from potato or legumes and are suitable for vegan friendly wines

Question 16

PVPP:

Answer 16

Polyvinylpolypyrrolidine is an insoluble plastic in powder form that removes browning and astringency of oxidised white wine
– gentler than charcoal

rarely used on red wines, but can reduce astringency and brighten the colour

Question 17

Fining agents that removes colour and off odours: charcoal:

Answer 17

1) this removes brown colours (eg to create pale cream sherry) and some off odours
2) care has to be taken as charcoal over fines easily, removing desirable aromas and flavours
3) one option is to treat only one batch of the affected wine and then blend it with the rest of the wine to reduce this effect

Question 18

WHat is filtration ?

Answer 18

1) physical separation technique used to eliminate solids from a suspension by passing it through a filter medium consisting of porous layers that trap solid particles, thus making the liquid clear
- – most common way to carifying wine

Question 19

There are two main types of filtration:

Answer 19

1) Depth filtration

2) surface filtration

Question 20

Depth filtration:

Answer 20

1) traps particles in thedepth of the material that forms the filter

2) it can cope with fluit with many particles in it
- - wine that has just been pressed or lees

3) small particles are trapped within the many irregular channels through the filter

4) this type of filter does not block eaily:
– not absolutely reliable because:
if too much pressure is applied or too long usage
—– some particles will make their way through the filter
* in other words it is notan absolute filter

Question 21

what kind of depth filters are available and their products:

Answer 21

1) a rotary drum filter
2) a plate and frame filter

products:
1) diatomaceous earth
2) sheet filters

Question 22

Diatomaceous earth:

Answer 22

1) most common
2) also kwown as DE and Kieselguhr
- – once processed, is pure silica and inert

• rotary vacuum filters use this method to filter very thick and cloudy wine (eg mixed with lees)
• • it is an oxidative process as the drum is exposed to air
• enclosed drum filters do the same job, but can be flushed with inert gas (nitrogen) to avoid oxidation taking place
• DE comes in a range of particle sizes and thus can remove large or very small (eg yeast) particles

Question 23

Sheet filters:

Answer 23

1) ) also known as pad, plate or frame filters
2) the wine is passed through a sheet of the filtering material
3) the more sheets there are in the filter, the quicker the wine can be filtered because any portion of wine olnly passes through one sheet

4) very fine graded sheets can be used to remove any remaining yeast at bottling

5) remains a initial cost (frame need to be strong) although cost of filter sheets is low
- - trained personnel need must operate them to work properly

Question 24

Surface filter stops particles particles that are bigger than the pore size of the filter from going through, they are often termed absolute filters. there are 2 types:

Answer 24

1) membrane filter

2) cross flow filters

Question 25

Membrane filter:

Answer 25

1) also called membrane cartridge filters 2) slower than using depth filters as the pores are smaller, often less than 1 micron - - so wine need to be prefiltered (depth filtration) - -- otherwise membranes get blocked 3) usually used as a final precaution immediately before the wine is bottled to ensure that the wine is completely clear and microbiologically stable - -- called sterile filtering (yeast and bacteria are have been removed) but not entirely accurate 4) in contrast to depth filters the initial cost is low, but the cardridges are expensive

Question 26

Cross flow filters:

Answer 26

1) known as tangential filters 2) allow wine to pass through the filter while uniquely cleaning the surface of the filter as it works 3) solid parts cannot pass through the filter 4) can filter wine very quickly, there are no replacement sheets 5) expensive so suited for large and or well funded wineries

Question 27

As with fining, some winecritics and winemakers believe that filtration can negatively affect a wine's character, especially stripping it of texture. for this reason wines are bottled unfiltered. however, others argue that any immediate loss of texture is compensated in two ways:

Answer 27

1) first the wine will recover from the shock of filtration after some months 2) there is much less chance of wines developing faults as bacteria and yeast have been removed

Question 28

What is stabilisation of wine ?

Answer 28

Some interventions carried out to prevent undesirable effects on the final wine. This includes; 1) tackling potential of unwanted hazes or deposit 2) rapid change of browning 3) Tartrate stability 4) fining and microbiological stability

Question 29

What about the protein stability ?

Answer 29

Fining with bentonite is the key procedure to ensure protein stability

Question 30

Tartrates are harmless deposits of crystals that can form in the finished wine, principally Potassium and bitartrate and, less frequently, calcium tartrate.

Answer 30

As many customers will regard these crystals as a fault, all high volume winemakers will prevent this. there are several options: 1) cold stabilisation 2) Contact process 3) electrodialysis 4) Ion exchange 5) Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) 6) Metatartaric acid

Question 31

tartrate stability: Cold stabilisation:

Answer 31

1) Most common in a cold cellar -4°c 25°f for around 8 days - - crystals can form before bottling (because tartrates are less soluble at cold temp) and then can be filtered out 2) it requires the equipment and the cost of energy to refrigerate the wine 3) Colloids must be removed by fining: because they could prevent the crystals from forming at this stage 4) this process only removes the more common potassium bitartrate, not the calcium tartrate

Question 32

Tartrate stability: contact process:

Answer 32

1) quicker, continuous, more reliable and cheaper form of cold stabilisation 2) potassium bitartrate is added to the wine and speeds up the start of the crystallisation process 3) wine is usually cooled to around 0°C 32°F - - after 1-2 hours the resulting crystals are filtered out

Question 33

Tartrate stability: Electrodialysis:

Answer 33

1) uses a charged membrane to remove selected ions 2) after high initial cost, the total cost is less than cold stabilisation and uses less energy and is faster 3) removes both potassium and calcium ions and to a smaller extend tartrate ions 4) allowed in EU and other territories

Question 34

Tartrate stability: Ion exchange:

Answer 34

1) this process does not remove tartrates, but instead: - - it replaces potassium and calcium ions with hydrogen or sodium ions which will not drop out of solution 2) this process is not allowed in some territories as it replaces the potassium with sodium, which is not conductive to health - - however the resulting levels in wine are well below the legal limit

Question 35

Tartrate staility: CMC

Answer 35

1) Carboxymethylcellulose CMC 2) extracted from wood and prevent tartrates from developping to a visible size 3) widely for inexpensive white and rosé wines 4) not suitable for reds, because it react with tannins (rendering it ineffective) and causes haze 5) much cheaper than chilling 6) Keeps the wine stable for a few years

Question 36

Tartrate stability: Metatartaric acid:

Answer 36

1) prevents the growth of potassium bitartrate and calcium tartrate crystals - - reducing the need for cold stabilisation 2) compound is unstable and its positive effect is lost over time (especially if wine is stored at high temp 25-30°C 3) quick process, good for reds

Question 37

Microbiological stability:

Answer 37

Wines with residual sugar are potentially liable to start to re ferment in the bottle -- this can be dealt with by removing yeast through sterile filtering * the alternative is to add sorbic acid and so2 which inhibits yeasts from growing - - a drawback is that peaple can smell the effects

Question 38

Very few microbes can live in wine with its low ph and high alcohol levels exceptions include:

Answer 38

1) lactic acid bacteria 2) Brettanomyces (spoilage yeast) * wines with lactic acid bacteria where malo conversion has not been carried out or completed are liable to start the conversion again in bottle - -- solution: malo completed or filtring for removing bacteria * brettanomyces is a problem: wine can be treated with DMDC (dimethyl dicarbonate, commercial name: velcorin) before bottling which inactivates brettanomyces

Question 39

What are the finishing options ?

Answer 39

1) adjusting the level of sulfur dioxide 2) reducing disolved oxygen 3) adding carbon dioxide

Question 40

Adjusting the level of sulfur dioxide:

Answer 40

1) must ensure the level of so 2 is within legal limits 2) the total so2 and free so2 are measured - - free so2 contains molecular so 2 -- this is effective - - the lower the ph the more molecular so2 is present and the more effective it is - - wines with lower ph requires lower amounts of so2 3) general amounts of so2: * white: 25-45mg/l (lower than red due to lower ph) * red wine: 30-55MG/l * sweet wine: 30-60mg/l

Question 41

Redusing dissolved oxygen:

Answer 41

Oxygen dissolved in wine can accelerate the speed of ageing of the wine * if levels are too high --- flushing the wine with an inert gas ° this process is called sparging

Question 42

Adding carbon dioxide:

Answer 42

A small amount of co2 may remain in wine after finishing and packaging. Some producers of inexpensive fresh white and rosé will prefer a tiny bith of spritz -- if desired co2 is added just before bottling

Question 43

Most present day wine is technically fault free, because cara has been taken at every important stages:

Answer 43

- temp control - scrupulous hygiene in wineries - stabilisation - final adjustments of so2 - fining and filtering and care over bottling * nonetheless some wine faults continue to be seen: 1) cloudiness and hazes 2) Tartrates 3) refermentation in bottle 4) cork taint 5) oxidation 6) volatile acidity 7) reduction 8) light strike 9) brettanomyces

Question 44

Fault: Cloudiness and hazes:

Answer 44

Wines can be less than perfectly clear due: 1) growth of yeast or bacteria coupled with failure to filter adequately - - better hygiene in the winery, pre bottling chemical analysis and if necessary sterile filtring (removing yeast and bacteria 2) Cloudiness may also come due poor filtering (pumping wine at too high pressure through a depth filter so that some unwanted molecules go through the filter) 3) CLoudiness can also be due a protein haze where fining is not effective, wrong fining agent is used or the wine has been over fined - -- results in unstable proteins remaining in wine * fine correctly and conduct analysis after fining

Question 45

Fault: Tartrates

Answer 45

Colourless or white crystals at the bottom of the botttle - -- this can be seen as a fault by the consumer - - harmless to health and wine quality

Question 46

Fault refermentation in bottle:

Answer 46

Consumers may regard visible bubbles or spritz in wine as a fault - - if it is accompanied by cloudiness, it would indicate unwanted re-fermentation in bottle * this points to a failure of stabilise and clarify/filter the wine adequately

Question 47

Fault cork taint:

Answer 47

Associated wit a very unattractive, mouldy, wet cardboard smell, which additionally reduces the fruit character and shortens the finish of wines

Question 48

Fault oxidation:

Answer 48

1) result of escessive exposure to oxygen -- in winemaking process or once in bottle or other container * this can be due faulty bottling, poor quality corks, plastic closures or simply keeping the wine too long if it has no quality to age 2) the effect: the wine becomes prematurely brown in colour with a loss of primary fruit and then a vinegary smell

Question 49

Fault volatile acidity:

Answer 49

All wines have volatile acidity, but excessive amounts give a pungent smell of nail varnish and or vinegar -- this is due the activity of acetic acid bacteria, inadequate levels of so2 and excess exposure to oxygen treat: - sort fruit excluding damaged grapes - scrupulous hygien in the winery: keeping vessels topped up, carefully racking to avoid escessive exposure to oxygen and maintaining adequate so2 levels

Question 50

Fault Reduction:

Answer 50

1) associated with sulfur like odours that range from onion to rotten eggs 2) the smells are caused by high levels of volatile, reductive sulfur compounds 3) depending on which compounds and the amount, this can add complexity to the wine (struck match and smoke) - - at higher concentration they develop aromas of rotten eggs and has been seen as a fault 4) these compounds can be produce by yeast under stress (due the low nitrogen level) in the winemaking phase - - also due the near complete exclusion of oxygen during ageing in closed vessels - --- especially when lees ageing * sometimes these odours evolve when wine is closed with the impermeable type of screw cap 5) avoiding: ensuring yeast has sufficient nutrients and oxygen and the must is at a adequate temp - - so2 may need to be lowered, especially if the closure used allows very little oxygen ingress

Question 51

Fault: light strike:

Answer 51

1) caused by UV radiation and certain wavelengths of visible lights reacting with certain compounds in the wine to form volatile sulfur compounds - - giving odours like dirty drains 2) wines in direct sunlight high risk - - also near fluorescent lighting (in display at retailers) * wines packed in clear glass are more at risk than those in dark (green and particularly brown)

Question 52

Fault: Brettanomyces:

Answer 52

1) can produce range of off-smell aromas: from animal, spicy or farmyard smells 2) some tasters think it gives complexity to the wine at low levels - - at higher levels this is clearly a fault when the off flavours dominate and fruity flavours are reduced and the acidity/ tannins of wine become more prominent 3) Once in a winery, it is difficult to eradicate - - especially wood is a good host to the organism and can be difficult to clean effectively (can be present in old or new barrels) 4) how avoiding brett: - - excellent hygiene - - maintaining effective so2 levels - - keeping ph levels low - - keeping the period between the end of alc ferm and malo ferm, short as possible, so so2 can be added as quick as possible

Question 53

The most important consideration when bottling or filling other containers is oxygen management:

Answer 53

the amount of oxygen desides the shelf life and development of the wine - - too much will lead to premature browning of the wine - - too little may lead to reductive characters (onion rotten eggs)

Question 54

The total package oxygen of a wine is the combination of:

Answer 54

-- The amount of dissolved oxygen in the wine -- the oxygen in the headspace (below cork or other closure) ---- usually the greatest contributor --the amount of oxygen in the cork or other closure -- the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of the cork or closure * because all these factors, oxygen will be limited ( by flushing head space with an inert gass before bottling) and the OTR will be considered

Question 55

in most markets glass bottles are the prefered option for pthe packaging of a wine two exceptions:

Answer 55

1) Producer markets: where inexpensive plastic (pvc) containers are used to collect wine from a local winery for short term storage and early drinking 2) the imortance of bag in box in some markets

Question 56

What are the advantages of glass as packaging option ?

Answer 56

1) it is ideal as container for wine as it is made of inert material that conveys no taint to the wine and is impereable to oxygen 2) bottles can be delivered to wineries in a near sterile condition, having been shrinked wrapped when still hot 3) it is inexpensive to manufacture and comes in a range of colours 4) In principle it is 100% recyclable, but some colours are more easy to recycle than others 5) best option for bottle ageing as it is impermeable to oxygen

Question 57

What are the disadvantages of glass packaging ?

Answer 57

1) it has a high carbon footprint because of the heat of production 2) heavy to transport and therefore also contributing to its carbon footprint 3) fairly fragile 4) rigid: therefore once opened it is susceptible to fast oxidation 5) clear bottles: can be spoled by fluorescent light

Question 58

WHat about plastic as packaging option ?

Answer 58

PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a form of plastic that is light (about 1/8th of the weight of glass) though inexpensive and in principe recyclable * it has to form a barier with oxygen if it has to be impermeable and therefore give a reasonable shelf life - - PET can be used for a range of size - - well suited for wines with a limited shelf life and for uick consumptions and in informal settings * special equipment is required as the bottles inflates when filling

Question 59

Bag in box:

Answer 59

1) consist of a cardboard box that houses a flexible bag inside 2) usually made of very thin alluminium foil (barrier to oxygen) covered on both sides by a suitable plastic - - other form is made of plastic that gives some protection to oxygen and is resistant to cracking unlike aluminium foil 3) the advantages: * flexible pour size * good protection from oxygen after wine has been pored (the bag collapses in the box) * range of sizes 1,5l- 20l * suitable for home and commercial use * easy to store * low environmental impact 4) the wine need slightly more so2 level than in glass to counter oxidation, a low dissolved oxygen level, no head space and low co2 (to avoid the bag from bulging (opzwellen)) 5) producers must use a high quality tap as this is where most oxygen ingress occurs - - shelf life is in a range from 6-9months depending on the quality of manufacture * although the best may protect the wine for up to a year - --- very succesful in certain markets (australia is pioneer)

Question 60

Brick:

Answer 60

1) Tetra pack 2) made of paper card with plastic layers and alluminium foil layer that excludes oxygen and light 3) the package can be entirely filled with wine, thereby excluding oxygen 4) The filling equipment is a big investment and some producers outsource the filling of bricks (uitgeven)

Question 61

Pouch:

Answer 61

Are similar to the bags inside baginboxes | -- available in larger and single serve sizes

Question 62

Cans:

Answer 62

1) light weight 2) robust 3) easy to open ring pull can 4) impermeable to oxygen 5 recyclable 6) the aluminium has to be lined with plastic to avoid being attacked by the acidity of the wine 7) fillong equipment is a big investment, some producers will outsource the filling

Question 63

The ideal closure wold wombine the following properties:

Answer 63

1) protect the wine from rapid oxidation 2) be inert so that it does not affect the quality of the wine adversely (ongunstig) 3) be easy to remove en re-insert 4) be cheap, recylclable and free from faults --- cork taints remain the most popular closure (at around 60%

Question 64

The most common closures are:

Answer 64

1) natural cork 2) technical corks 3) Synthetic closures 4) screw cap 5) Glass stoppers

Question 65

Natural cork:

Answer 65

1) flexible 2) inert ( but can house harmfull fungi 3) natural renewable source 4) good image for consumers, opening a bottlehas been seen as enjoying wine 5) Range of length and quality: - shorter; cheaper and good for inexpensive wines - - longer and better quality for better wines that may be aged in bottle

Question 66

2 issues about natural cork:

Answer 66

1) Cork taint, due the creation of TCA (2,4,6-trichloroanisole) and other related compounds - - smell of mould or wet cardboard that also supresses the fruit character - - estimate (schatting) 3-5 per cent affect of bottles with cork 2) generally a good oxygen barrier, variable rates of oxygen ingress, same wine ages at different rates in the med to long term

Question 67

How to eliminate the incidence of cork taint ?

Answer 67

1) creation of alternative closures 2) Cleaning corks with stream extraction (championed by amorin, the largest world producer of cork products 3) Creating closures with recomposed cork particles that have been cleaned and reconstituted with plastic (looks and behave like natural cork) championed by Diam - -- form of technical cork 4) Rigorous quality control during cork production high cost high tech: gas chromatography to check the presence of TCA 5) Barrier between the cork and wine by a impermeable membrane, that gives a wrinkled appearance on the end of the cork and excludes any aromas reaching the wine

Question 68

Technical corks:

Answer 68

1) cheaest form: agglomerate cork in which cork granules (korrels) are glued together - - only suitable for inexpensive wines intended to drunk quickly after purchase 2) one plus one cork: The middle section which is the largest is of inexpensive agglomerate, but finished with a disc of natural cork at both ends 3) Diam corks: natural with plastic - - available with different oxygen ingress rates so the winemaker can choose a closure for wines to be drunk in the short term or for ageing

Question 69

Synthetic corks:

Answer 69

1) plastic corks 2) made of food grade plastic with silicone coating 3) cheapest: moulded closures - - relatively rigidity makes them more difficult to re insert in the bottle * extruded closures are more elastic, made of external firm layer of plastic covering a plastic foam - - limited protection from oxygen, suitable for early drinking wines * now comes in a range of oxygen ingress rates (leading producer Nomacorc for extended bottle ageing 4) A further issue is the loss of flaour intensity, because plastic absorbs some flavour molecules (mostly not perceived by the consumer

Question 70

Screw cap:

Answer 70

1) aluminium closure rolled onto the outside of a bottleneck that has been specially designed for this purpose 2) the seal with the wine is a wad of either tin (impermeable to oxygen) or saran (a form of plastic with low permeability to oxygen better known as cling film (huishoudfolie))

Question 71

An issue with screw caps:

Answer 71

wines becomes reductive after bottling due the near impermeable tin lingings with an unpleasant onion like smell on first opening -- winemakers intending to use screw caps are adapting the final wine to have slightly lower so2 levels to avoid this issue

Question 72

Screw caps eliminate the possibility of taint from corks:

Answer 72

TCA can be picked up from other sources eg infected barrels, far less prevalent than from corks

Question 73

consumer attitudes towards the screwcap are markedly different between those countries where this closure has a high degree of acceptance for all but the finest wines (eg australia, new zealand, UK) and those where the screw cap is still seen as synonymoes with inexpensive wines.

Answer 73

Therefore the winemaker must take the intended market into account when making decisions about closures -- therefore many larger wineries offer the same wine with both screw cap and cork

Question 74

Glass stoppers:

Answer 74

often referred by the vinolok brand name, glass stoppers are a closure made from glass, but where the actual seal is formed by a plastic ring -- wine can be stored for similar lengths of time as under other current closures (natural corks) * special bottles must be used to ensure a perfect fit * stoppers look attractive and are as expensive as top quality cork, and therefore are only suitable for premium and super premium wines

Question 75

Some pdos (chianti classico riserva DOCG) specify a min length of bottle maturation before the wine can be distributed and sold.

Answer 75

Post bottling maturation can increase costs, as the winery must have/ build suitable storage conditions and pay insurance while the wine is in their ownership

Question 76

A small amount of oxygen can be positive, allowing the wine to develop slowly in bottle:

Answer 76

Primary aromas becomes tertiary aromas, tannins soften, any aroma compounds from oak become better integrated and the colour moves towards brown and becomes paler in red wines and darker in white wines -- rapid or excessive oxidation is perceived as a negative

Question 77

If the wine is exposed to too little oxygen before bottling, this can lead to the formation of volatile reductive sulfur compounds in the bottle:

Answer 77

at low levels these compounds can give some aromas that may be perceived as positive, such as struck match and smoke. at high levels they give rotten egg and other unpleasant aromas

Question 78

Any ageing time should be spent undisturbed in a cool dark place, with a constant temp

Answer 78

ideally around 10-15°C 50-59°f -- there should also be constant humidity and if sealed with cork, the bottles should be stored lying on their side, so that the corks remain moist and optimum seal is maintained

Question 79

Virtually all modern wineries regard hygiene as a very high priority:

Answer 79

high standarts hygiene give the winemaker the maximum chance of producing sound wine (in good condition) and of avoiding contamination from organisms that could spoil wine (eg spoilage yeasts)

Question 80

New wineries are designed to facilitate cleaning:

Answer 80

1) easy to clean stainless steel 2) hard non porous floor surfaces that slope to aid drainage and equipment being located so that it can be reached to be cleaned 3) particular attention has to be paid to hard to reach areas: underneath equipment or dead ends of pipes - - pores in oak continue to be a potential source of spoilage organisms

Question 81

There are three procedures for hygiene:

Answer 81

1) Cleaning: removal of surface dirt 2) Sanitation: the reduction of unwanted organisms to acceptably low levels, typically with water and a detergent or other sanitising agent and or steam 3) sterilisation: the elemination of unwanted organisms: for example from high risk areas such as the filter heads of bottling lines: these can be sterilised with high strength alcohol or with steam * wineries have a detailed shedule for cleaning, sanitation and sterilisation actions

Question 82

Quality control in a winery is the set of practices by which the company ensures a consistently good quality product:

Answer 82

- its the complete way a business organises itself to deliver a good product consistently and to protect itself from legal challenge these include planning, - -- a producer can show that they have taken all the reasonable precautions to produce a safe product for the consumer * and have the documentation to be able to demonstrate it

Question 83

HACCP: Hazar Analysis of Critical Control Points

Answer 83

1) is a common approach to quality assurance regarding significant threats to the safety of consumers and the reputation of a wine company 2) The company identifies all the possible hazards that should affect final wine quality ( in effect everything that could go wrong) - - for each hazard the haccp document will state how serious it is, how it can be prevented and how it can be corrected

Question 84

Wine companies seeking external verification of their quality standards can be audited against the standards by a recognised external body such as the ISO (international Organisation for Standardization:

Answer 84

The purpose of this to give assurance to all the parties down the supply chain: the wholesaler and the retailers who will sell this wine and finally the end consumer * the ISO sets standards (iso 9000 and 9001) and separate certification bodies cary out the audits - - external auditors from the company will review the company's own quality management system, management structure, physical and human resources and how it measures, analyse and improves it performance * Rigorous process for which a professional fee must be paid * many large retailers require a higher level of audit, which might also look at issues such as environmental policy or ethical trading - - multiple audits add further cost, both in terms of fees paid and in staff time

Question 85

a formal system for traceability is necessary if a wine compan is to:

Answer 85

1) respond to and investigate complaints about wine: complaints can come from any point of the supply chain, including the final consumer 2) improve its practice so that similar problems do not occur in the future * Each consignement of wine will be given a lot number, which appears on the bottle - - this is a requirement in the eu and many other markets - - the lot number enables a company to trace back where the grapes come from, what additives have been used and what processes the wine went through * the winery must keep records of its activities at every point of its production, from the vineyard, through the winery and then in the transportation of the wine - - larger firms and those concerned about traceability will keep samples of every batch so that they can investigate what has gone wrong and compare returned bottles with their library of samples * common problems include cork taint, tartrate crystals and faulty or missing labels

Question 86

Historically wine has been transported in animal skins, terracotta and for centuries in barrels. Bottling wine in the winery became an important means of quality control in bordeaux by this the producer could guarantee that the final wine was as the producer intended.

Answer 86

Today the main options are: - transport in glass bottles or in larger containers in bulk - premium and super premium wines continue to be bottled in the winery and transported in cases of individual bottles * road and rail is used to move wine in containers of 24000 litres from southern europe to markets in northern europe * container ships cary wine from australia new zealand and south africa chile and argentina to final markets in the northern hemisphere * the majority of exported wines is transported in bottle - - wine in bulk makes a significant minority (30-40% vof volume

Question 87

There are 2 types of container for the bulk shipping:

Answer 87

1) the more common flexitank, a single use recyclable polyethylene bag that fits into a standard container 2) ISO tank: stainless steel vessel built to the iso standard that can be reused many times and may have additional insulation (isolatie) * the flexitank bag is coated with a barrier to prevent taint from an external source and to reduce oxygen ingress - - insulated tanks with temp control, known as reefers, are available, but at an additional cost

Question 88

The advantages of shipping wine in bottle is that the entire product- the wine, the bottling and the labelling and any external packaging is controlled by the producer, the disadvantages are:

Answer 88

1) The smaller amount of wine that can be shipped in one container and therefore higher cost 2) The financial and environmental cost of shipping the weight of glass as well as the wine 3) Potential damage to the wine due to high and fluctuating (schommelende) temp in transit and potential spoilage of labels and packaging in transport 4) shorter shelf life of inexpensive wine because it is bottled earlier than if it were bottled in ore close to the final market

Question 89

The advantages of shipping wine in bulk are:

Answer 89

1) It is more environmentally friendly as one container can hold the equivalent of 24000-26000 bottles in liquid rather than 9000-10000 filled bottles, reducing the carbon foodprint of the iwne 2) for the same reason it is cheaper 3) the greater thermal inertia of a whole container filled with wine, which means there is less fluctuation of temp - this reduces the risk of loss of ruit and oxidation of wine in transit, which is relevant for slow, long distance journeys that go through 4) strict quality control: the key parameters of a wine (residual sugar, so2 etc) can be measured at the point of filling the container and again on emptying it 5) the wine can be adjusted (eg so2 levels) at the point of bottling close to the consumer 6) the shelf life of a wine can be extended as this is calculated from the time of bottling (eg shipping wine from australia to northern au takes around 8 weeks) this is particularly relevant for bag in box with its relatively short shelf life

Question 90

Disadvantages of shipping in bulk:

Answer 90

1) loss direct relationship with the producer 2) the transfer of business and employement opportunities from producer countries to the countries close to the fnal market 3) protest in south africa: complaining about the loss of business and of jobs - - shipping bulk is only viable for larger brands, for example those that will sell three or more containers per year