D1 Wine Production - 2020 Flashcards

Question

When do shoots and leaves grow and what does the vine need at this stage?

Answer 1

March to July (NH) and september to January (SH) The vine needs stored carbohydrates, warmth, sunlight, nutrients (nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus) and water. Adverse conditions include low carbohydrate levels (caused by conditions in the precious growing season) and water stress

Answer 2

May to June (NH) and November-December (SH)

Answer 3

The opening of the individual flowers within and inflorescence. Within this process, the pollen-laden stamens are exposed. The pollen grains are shed and land on the moistened stigma surface, a process called polination. Here, they germinate, with each pollen grain producing a pollen tube. These pollen tube delivers the sperm cells, which fertilise the eggs in the ovule. This leads to the formation of a grape berry. The fertilised ovules form seeds, with up to four per grape. The wall of the ovary enlargers to form the skin and pulp of the grape. Fruit set is the term used to describe this transition from flower to grape.

Answer 4

Flowering typically takes place within eight weeks of budburst, but the timing is temperature dependent. Warm conditions (>17) are favourable for successful flowering

Answer 5

Typically 30 percent of the flowers will become grapes. Pollen germination requires warm temperatures (26-32 degrees). Pollen tube growth is negatively affected by cold, rainy and/or windy conditions. But very hot conditions lead to water stress

Answer 6

1. Coulure: fruit set has failed for a high proportion of flowers. It is caused by an imbalance in carbohydrate levels, this leads to low rates of photosynthesis. This can be the result of either cold or hot weather, vigorous shoot growth, very fertile soils, heavy application of fertilisers, vigorous rootstocks. Susceptible grape varieties are Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Malbec 2. Millerandage: a high proportion of seedless grapes, these grapes are often smaller

Answer 7

Grape development occurs from June to october (NH) and december to april (SH) 1. Grape berry formation 2. Véraison 3. Ripening 4. Extra ripening

Answer 8

Grape berry formation is the first stage in grape development. The grapes grow in size and tartaric and malic acids accumulate. Aroma compounds and precursors develop, such as methoxypyrazine. This contributes to the herbaceous aromas/flavours. The tannins are very bitter at this time. Sugar levels are low. Water flow into the grape is high and is mainly tranported by the xylem (transport tissue for water and some nutrients). Too much water and nitrogen can prolong this stage, mild water stress can speed up this stage.

Answer 9

This is the second stage in grape development. Grape growth slows down for a few days (lag phase). Grape cell walls become stretchy and supple and becomes red in colour due to the synthesis of compounds called anthocyanins.

Answer 10

Ripening is the third stage in grape development. Cells in the grape expand rapidly, sugar and water accumulate and acid levels fall. Tannins, colour and a number of aroma precursors and aroma compounds develop.

Answer 11

Sugar accumulation is very rapid at the start of the ripening stage and then slows towards the end. It is produced by photosynthesis at 18-33 degrees celcius and sunshine levels above one third of full sunshine. Water flow via the xylem slows down and a sugar solution is transported by the phloem into the grape (phloem is a transport tissue that transfers sugar from the leaves to other parts of the vine). The sugar accumulation within the grape is correlated to the rate of grape transpiration. Grapes can transpire a small amount of water through the skin.

Answer 12

The total amount of tartaric acid does not change, but by diluting as sugar and water accumulate in the grape, the concentration falls. The concentration of malic acid falls even further because this type of acid can be used in respiration during the ripening stage. Mean temp above 21 degrees can lead to rapid loss of acidity whereas mean temp below 15 degrees can reduce acid loss. Cool night time temp means that less malic acid is lost (in climates with high diurnal range)

Answer 13

Methoxypyrazine levels fall. but cool temp en limited sunlight can hinder this decrease. The range of different aroma compounds and precursors that can be found in grapes is huge, and the synthesis, degradation or retention of each of these compounds may be influenced by heat and light in a different way.

Answer 14

In black grapes, level of tannings are high at véraison and decrease slightly throughout ripening. The tannins polymerise and this causes them to become less bitter. Sunshine on the grapes promotes tannin accumulation pre-véraison and greater polymerisation post-véraison.

Answer 15

1. Grape variety 2. Climate conditions 3. Management of the vine and vineyard 4. Time of harvest

Answer 16

If the grapes are left on the vine, they shrivel. So, water loss in the grape trough grape transpiration means that sugars are concentrated.

Answer 17

Ripeness of the grapes depend of several parameters. The most important are: - Level of sugar - Profile of the aromas/flavours - Tannin ripeness It is easier to adjust sugar, alcohol or acid levels than to work with grapes that have unripe tannins and/or aromas. Therefore, many grapegrowers will focus on attaining the desired level of tannin and aroma ripeness. Other parameters are acidity levels, pH levels, colour development.

Answer 18

1. Temperature and sunlight 2. Water 3. Nutrients Climate, weather and climate change influence the growing environment

Answer 19

- <10: ensure dormancy. 10: stimulate budburst, warm soil also promotes budburst. - 18-33: photosynthesis - >17: flowering - 26-32: fruit set - warm temperatures influence grape ripening, sugar accumulation in the grapes is faster due to optimum rate of photosynthesis and increased grape transpiration - Malic acid degradation is increased at warm temperatures. The effect of temperature on the formation of aroma compounds and aroma precursors is very complex. Generally riper aroma/flavours are associated with grapes grown in warmer climates. Cool conditions may hinder the breakdown of methoxypyrazine. In black grapes anthocyanin synthesis is optimum at 15-25 degrees. Extreme heat can cause photosynthesis to slow down or stop.

Answer 20

The vine needs sunlight for photosynthesis. Grape exposure to sunshine has a number of effects: - enhancing the development of anthocyanins - reduction of mothoxypyrazine - greater accumulation of tannins pre-véraison - promoting tannin polymerisation post-véraison

Answer 21

1. Latitude (between 30 and 50) 2. Altitude: temperature falls by apporximately 0,6 degrees over every 100m increase in altitude. Sunshine is more intense at high altitude and the ultraviolet radiation promote anthocyanin and tannin synthesis. 3. Slopes and aspect: extra warmth and light during spring and autumn extend the viable growing season for vines grown on slopes that face towards the sun. 4. Proximity to water: water heats up and cools down more slowly than dry land. During the day, the water and the air above a body of water remains relatively cool, and lowers the average temperature in the local area. The opposite happens at night. The water retains the warmth gained during the day, whereas, without solar radiation, the land loses heat relatively quickly. The warmth of the body of water keeps the local area warmer. Also the radiation reflected from the water surface can benefit the vineyard. Ocean currents do also have an effect on temperature - Gulf stream (from gulf of mexico and warms up many European wine regions) - California current (from the northern pacific and cools the west coast of north america) 5. Winds 6. Characteristics of soil: drainage, structure and colour 7. Mist, fog and clouds

Answer 22

El Nino Southern Oscillation is a climatic cycle in the pacific ocean. 1. El Nino starts when warm water in the western pacific ocean moves eastwards along the equator towards the Caribbean. The eastern pacific ocean becomes warmer than average ant his tends to cause high levels of rainfall and risk of hurricanes in south america and California. However, it brings warmer than average temperatures an drier conditions in the pacific northwest. On the westers side of the pacific ocean in Australia, el Nino tends to cause warmer temperatures and drought conditions 2. La Nina is caused when the eastern pacific ocean is cooler than average. It tends to result in cooler, wetter conditions in the pacific northwest, but warmer, drier conditions in California and south america. It also causes wetter and cooler conditions in Australia.

Answer 23

The average difference between daytime and nighttime temperature. Continental climes or at high altitude tend to have higher diurnal range. Cool night time in hot regions can slow the respiration of malic acid en be beneficial for the formation of anthocyanins. Warmer night time in cool regions can allow ripening to continue There are also exceptions: Wachau in Austria: cool climate with cold nights. The exact reasons behind diurnal range are unknown.

Answer 24

The vine needs a minimum of 500 mm rainfall a year in a cool climate and at least 750 mm in warm regions. The vine needs water for turgidity, photosynthesis and regulating its temperature. Water is a solvent for nutrients and acts as a medium in which all of the vine's biochemical and physiological mechanisms take place.. Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata, it causes water to be pulled upwards from the soil, through the roots and the above-ground parts of the vine (transpiration). Open stomata let carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out. A lack of water causes the vine to partially close its stomata - sometimes irrigation is needed If water is too available vegetative growth is promoted and thus compromising ripening. It can lead to reduced formation of anthocyanins, tannins and aroma compounds, less tannin polymerisation and higher levels of methoxypyrazines.

Answer 25

1. Rainfall: is caused by water vapour condensing and precipitating. Mountain ranges can force winds of warm moist air upwards over high altitudes, this causes the water vapour to cool, condense and precipitate. The other side of the mountain is called 'rain shadow'. 2. Characteristics of soil and land: soils that retain some water can be advantageous, water-logged soils are harmful to the vine. It reduces the amount of oxygen to the roots of the vine. 3. Evapotranspiration rate: the amount of transpiration from the vine, combined with the evaporation of water from the soil surface. Or, the rate at which water is no longer available, either because it has been taken up by the vine or because it has been lost to the atmosphere. It depends on temperature, humidity and wind.

Answer 26

The vine acquires the nutrients it needs from the soil. Nutrients are important for healthy vine growth and can have an influence on yield and grape composition.

Answer 27

1. Nitrogen: Vine growth and has influence on vine vigour and grape quality. It is a component of proteins and chlorophyll (required for photosynthesis). Too much: excessive vegetative growth. Too little: reduced vigour and yellowing of vine leaves. Grapes with low nitrogen can be problematic for fermentation. 2. Potassium: vine growth and helps regulate the flow of water in the vine. Too much: hinders the uptake of magnesium. Also gives high pH in the grape must. Too little: low sugar accumulation in the grape. 3. Phosporus: photosynthesis. Too little: poorly developed root system, reduced vine growth and lower yields. 4. Calcium: structure of plant cells and photosynthesis. Too little: negative effect on fruit set 5. Magnesium: found in chlorophyll (photosynthesis). Too little: reduced grape yields, poor ripening.

Answer 28

Sulfur, Manganese, Boron, Copper, Iron and Zinc

Answer 29

Vine nutrients dissolve in soil water, so the soil factors that influence water availability alsof impact nutrient availability. - Soil pH: e.g. high pH can cause chlorosis (leaves turn yellow and photosynthesis stops) - The vine needs the nutrients in inorganic form. Organisms that live in the soil are important in the process of mineralisation: feeding on organic matter and converting it into available forms - Soils with high proportion of clay are good at holding nutrients

Answer 30

1. Texture: proportions of the mineral particles of sand, silt and clay. Soils with high proportion of clay are finely textured. 2. Structure: how the mineral particles in the soil form aggregates (crumbs). The size, shape and stability of these aggregates are also important for determining water drainage, root growth and workability of the soil. The suitability of the soil for viticulture will depend on the texture and structure of the soil combined with how far the roots are able to penetrate.

Answer 31

A region's climate is defined as the annual pattern of temperature, sunlight, rainfall, humidity and wind averaged out over several years (generally 30 years)

Answer 32

1. Growing Degree Days (GDD): ~temp of a month in the growing season-10 C x days in that month. Add all months for the GDD. 5 Groups: Winkler Zone 1 - Winkler Zone 5 2. Huglin Index: Similar formular to GDD. But includes mean and maximum temp and increased day length at higher latitudes. Ranges with grape varieties to each range. 3. Mean July/Januari Temperature (MJT): + measures of continentality, humidity and hours of sunshine. Six bands cold-hot 4. Growing Season Temperature (GST): Mean temp of the whole growing season. 5. Köppen's Classification: - Maritime - Mediterranean - Continental - Cool - Moderate - Warm - Hot

Answer 33

First, the world's wine regions are categorised under three headings: - Maritime: low annual differences summer-winter. Rainfall is evenly spread - Mediterranean: low annual differences summer-winter. Rainfall in the winter - Continental: more extreme differences summer-winter. Short summers and cold winters. Next, the categories are qualified with a temperature categorisation: - Cool: ~<16.5 - Moderate: ~16.5-18.5 - Warm: ~18.5-21 - Hot: ~>21

Answer 34

A measure of the difference between the annual meant temperatures of the hottest and coldest months.

Answer 35

A region's weather is the annual variation that happens relative to the climatic average. Weather can have a significant influence on the wines produced in that year and this is often termed vintage variation.

Answer 36

The main measurable effect of climate change is a rise in temperatures. It also has the consequent effect of greater evapotranspiration and therefore likelihood of water stress. Other effects include changes in the geographical distribution of rainfall, greater weather variability and a greater frequency of extreme weather events.

Answer 37

- World view and ethical issues - Desired level of production - Intended wine quality - return on investment - Cost - Availability of labour - Environmental impact

Answer 38

The aims include raising production levels and reducing labour requirements. This is achieved by mechanisation, chemical inputs, irrigation and clonal selection.

Answer 39

Advantages: - ability to mechanise the work in the vineyard - reduction of competition by other plants - ability to tend the specific needs of the grape variety planted and increase yield while reducing costs Disadvantages - Plants in monoculture are more prone to disease and pests - Nutrients can be depleted - Residual chemicals can find their way into ground water.

Answer 40

- Sustainable - Organic - Bio-dynamic - Precision viticulture

Answer 41

- economic - social - environmental For WSET is primarily environmental sustainability important. It aims to promote the natural ecosystems in the vineyard, maintain biodiversity, manage waste, minimise applications of chemicals and energy use, and reduce the impact of viticulture on the wider environment.

Answer 42

IPM or integrated pest management It includes setting thresholds at which action needs to be taken, identifying and monitoring pests, setting up preventive measures and evaluating and implementing control options

Answer 43

LODI rules (Lodi California) Sustainable winegrowing NZ Sustainable winegrowing South Africa

Answer 44

Advantages - more thoughtful approach to grape growing - scientific understanding of the threats to successful grape growing - reduction in the spraying of synthetic and traditional treatments - consequent cost saving Disadvantages - term is not protected and can be used by anyone - standards can be set too low a bar for sustainable certification

Answer 45

Organic viticulture seeks to improve the soil of the vineyard and the range of microbes and animals, and thereby increase the health and disease resistance of the vine. Use of man-made fertilisers, fungicides, herbicides and pests is rejected, instead sulfur and copper sulfate are used to combat mildew. Key features are - application of compost - cover crops are also often used to prevent erosion of the soil - natural fertilisers may also be used - monoculture of vineyards can be reduced by growing cover crops, planting hedges and establishing 'islands' of biodiversity

Answer 46

To defend against grey rot > bacillus sibtillis: it competes with botrytis cinerea for space on the grape Sexual confusion: a technique involves the use of pheromone tags or capsules to disrupt the mating patterns of insects such as moths and mealy bugs

Answer 47

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. All certification bodies for organic viticulture must meet their standards. Each vineyard must undergo a period of conversion.

Answer 48

In Europe it is 10%. Europe accounts for 85% of organic viticulture in the world. Fastest growing is Spain (Castilla- La Mancha) 6% in New Zealand 4% in USA <2% in Chile and Argentina

Answer 49

Advantages: - making the health and disease-resistance of the vine and the heath of the soil central aims of the grape grower - the reduction in the number of chemical treatments in the vineyard and the elimination of spraying synthetic chemicals - saving on the cost of synthetic chemicals Disadvantages - possible small reduction in yield - possibility of significant reductions in yield in difficult years - increased reliance on copper sprays - the cost and time expended on certification

Answer 50

Preparations are used to fertilise the soil, treat diseases and ward off pests. For example: - Preparation 500: cow manure stuffed into a cow's horn, this is buried in the soil through the winter. Then its dug up and the content is dynamised and then sprayed over the vineyard. It aims to catalyse humus formation. - Preparation 501: ground quartz (silica) into a cow's horn, burying it for 6 months, dug up dynamised and sprayed onto the soil. It aims to encourage plant growth. - Compost: it is believed that it has to be activated first by adding a series of starters (yarrow, chamomile, nettle, oak bark, dandelion, valerion) These are called preparations 502-507. It aims to assist with decomposition of the compost.

Answer 51

Demeter. It sets international standards for farming and animal husbandry.

Answer 52

Romanée Conti in Burgundy | Also in the Loire Valley this approach is popular

Answer 53

It makes use of data collected from the vineyard (soil, vigour, topography, plant growth) to respond to changes from plot to plot and from row to row. The data is collected by sensors either on aircraft (remote) of mounted on a tractor or harvester in the field (proximal). GPS and GIS allows the data to be presented visually

Answer 54

Interventions in the vineyard that are targeted in the light of the data collected. For all key interventions, pruning, leaf removal, treatments, irrigation, crop thinning and harvesting, is van be carried out precisely with the aim of producing the best quality and yield, reducing environmental impact and reducing costs on treatment.

Answer 55

Advantages: - detailed understanding of variations in the vineyard - ability to tailor a wide range of interventions to individual blocks of vines Disadvantages: - initial cost of remote data collection - Cost of sensors and software and of consultancy

Answer 56

- Price of the land - Location, layout and topography - Steep slopes - Source of irrigation water - Ease of acces to the vineyard site - Proximity of the vineyard and winery to towns and cities

Answer 57

Wines with a PDO will be subject to rules that stipulate - what grape varieties can be used - maximum yield - viticultural practices - winemaking practices

Answer 58

- Root penetration - Water drainage - Nutrient holding capacity - Workability

Answer 59

- Time of budding - Duration of annual life-cycle - Tolerance of drought - Resistance to disease - Winter hardiness - Vigour

Answer 60

- Style of wine - Yield - Cost - Law - Availability - Market demand

Answer 61

A grape grower can cut the original vine at the trunk and graft a bud from a new vine variety on top. This is called head grafting or top grafting. The benefit is that, with and established root system, the new vine variety can product fruit suitable for wine much more quickly than a brand-new planting. A disadvantage is that the rootstock will have been selected based on the characteristics of the original grape variety, and may not be equally suited to the new grape variety.

Answer 62

- pests - water - soil pH - Vigour

Answer 63

structure and texture of the soil and the organisms that live within it

Answer 64

- Structure of the soil - Amount of organic matter and humus in the soil - Number of living organisms in the soil - Total amount of available nutrients that the vine needs to grow successfully

Answer 65

1. Organic fertilisers: are derived from fresh or composted plant or animal material. Organic nutrients need to be broken down into inorganic nutrients by the living organisms, these fertilisers require incorporation into the soil, which requires labour. 2. Mineral fertilisers: are extracted from the ground or chemically manufactured. They can provide a single nutrient or several nutrients and thus can be more tailored. These are more expensive, more concentrated

Answer 66

``` Advantages - not use any chemicals - enables fertiliser and mow cover crops to be incorporated into the soil at the same time as removing weeds. Disadvantages - repeated cultivation can damage the soil's structure - costly in labour and machinery - disturbing the soil buries seeds - it can encourage vine vigour too much ```

Answer 67

1. Pre-emergence herbicides 2. Contact herbicides 3. Systemic herbicides

Answer 68

``` Advantages - cheap in labour and machinery - highly effective - less damaging than cultivation Disadvantages - risks of poisoning - Weeds can become resistant - They can increase vine vigour - Not allowed in organic and biodynamic viticulture ```

Answer 69

``` Advantages - No use of any chemicals - The animals can provide manure - Animals can be a source of meat Disadvantages - animals may eat leaves and/or grapes - animals need caring for - animals are susceptible to vineyard pesticides ```

Answer 70

Cover crops may be grown to suppress weeds. The may also be planted to improve soil structure, compete with the vine for nutrient and water availability in fertile sites, manage soil erosion, enhance biodiversity and provide a surface to drive on Examples include legumes (beans and clover), cereals (ryegrass and oats)

Answer 71

Mulching is the spreading of matter onto the vineyard soil to suppress the growth of weeds. They are usually made of biodegradable materials, such as straw or bark chips.

Answer 72

- use of certain water-efficient irrigations systems combined with better monitoring of water take-up by the vine - use of drought-tolerant grape varieties (grenache) and rootstocks (140R) - reducing evaporation (by applying mulch) - reducing competition - increasing humus levels in the soil to improve water retention - promoting the growth of vine roots deep into the soil

Answer 73

Drip irrigation Advantages: - economic use of water - control water supply to individual rows or blocks of vines - used to supply fertiliser (fertigation) - can be used on slopes Disadvantages - installation costs are high - clean water is required - maintenance work is required - cannot be used in frost protection (aspersion)

Answer 74

Flood irrigation Channel irrigation Overhead sprinklers

Answer 75

Regulated Deficit Irrigation: is a system of timing and regulating the amount of irrigation so that the vine is put under mild to moderate water stress for a specified time within the growing season. It is scheduled between fruit set and véraison. Vine growth and grape development can be better controlled and less water can be used.

Answer 76

The organisation of the shoots, leaves and fruit of the vine in order to maximise grape yield and quality

Answer 77

- maximise the effectiveness of light interception by the vine canopy - reduce the shade within the canopy - ensure that the microclimate for the grapes is as uniform as possible so that grapes ripen evenly - promote balance between the vegetative and reproductive functions of the vine - arrange the vine canopy to ease mechanisation and/or manual labour - promote air circulation through the canopy to reduce incidence of disease

Answer 78

Canopy management can help maximise the leaf surface area that is exposed to sunlight. this increases the vine's photosynthetic capacity and means it can ripen larger yields. It can also influence yield (and grape quality) by reducing fungal disease pressure.

Answer 79

- increased sugar levels in grapes - increased tanning levels and greater polymerisation - enhanced antocyanin development - decreased malic acid - increased levels of some aroma precursors and aroma compounds (e.g. terpenes) - decreased methoxypyrazines

Answer 80

Canopy management can improve vine balance by achieving a suitable balance between the vine's vigour and crop load.

Answer 81

Yield is a measure of the amount of fruit produced. It can be measured per vine (kg per vine) of over a set area (kg per hectare or tons per acre). Yield over a set area will depend on the yield per vine and the planting density. The higher the yield within a set area, the more wine can be made and sold.

Answer 82

- site assessment - vine training - winter pruning - vine trellising - overall plant vigour management - summer pruning - --shoot removal - --shoot positioning - --pinching - --shoot trimming - --leaf removal - --crop thinning/green harvesting

Answer 83

- vigour of the vine - type of trellising - access between the vines

Answer 84

north south orientation provides the most even sunlight exposure through the canopy. Prevailing winds may also be a factor in decisions on row orientation, with grape growers choosing to orient the rows at a 90 degree angle to the direction of the wind to provide most protection. General considerations: - rows parallel to the longest side of the vineyard - slopes >10%: rows planted up

Answer 85

- vigour of the vine - topography of the site - need for mechanisation

Answer 86

1. Head training: little permanent wood. Can be spur-pruned or replacement cane-pruned. 2. Cordon training: with one or more permanent horizontal arms (cordons). Usually spur-pruned. Either can be low-trained: to benefit from heat retained by the soil or provide greater protection from wind. Or either can be high-trained: to better avoid frosts or make manual interventions such as harvesting easier.

Answer 87

Spurs are short sections of one-year-old-wood that have been cut back to only two or three buds. Spurs can either be distributed along a cordon or around the top of the trunk. This method can be mechanised. Form of winter-pruning

Answer 88

Canes are longer sections of one-year-old-wood an can have from 8-20 buds. They are laid down horizontally and need a trellis. This method is more complex and requires a skilled labour force. More buds ar left on the vine with more vigorous vines. It is a form of winter-pruning

Answer 89

Vines are head trained and spur-pruned and are called bush vines. Simple and easy and inexpensive. Usually planted in hot and sunny regions. It is not suitable for mechanisation.

Answer 90

Shoots can be spread out to maximise light interception, increase air flow and aid mechanisation. However, it is expensive to establish and needs maintaining.

Answer 91

1. Vertical shoot positioning (VSP) | 2. Complex training systems

Answer 92

Most common type. Can be used on head-trained, replacement cane-pruned vines and cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines. With RCP: Guyot training (or double Guyot). Best suited for low or moderate vigour

Answer 93

Vines that are vigorous need more complex trellising. Canopy can be split horizontally (Geneva Double Curtain or Lyre) or split vertically (Smart-Dyson or Scott-Henry) It provides best use of the vineyard space and produces large yield or high quality fruit. They are more difficult to manage and mechanise.

Answer 94

Enhancing grape ripening, reducing chance of fungal disease or make the vineyard easier to manage. It includes: - disbudding (to manage vine balance and yield) - Shoot removal (those that are infertile) - Shoot positioning - Pinching (remove shoot tips at flowering) - Shoot trimming (cutting shoots to limit growth) - Leaf removal (reduce shading of fruit and enhance ripening) - Crop thinning or green harvesting (removal of bunches of grapes, timed near véraison)

Answer 95

1. Drought 2. Excess of water 3. Untimely rainfall 4. Freeze 5. Frosts 6. Hail 7. Sunburn 8. Fire 9. Smoke taint

Answer 96

Amount of water needed is a minimum of 500mm per year in cool climates and at least 750mm in warm regions. It can be managed by: - if allowed, irrigation systems - drought resistant rootstocks (v. rupestris and v. berlandieri parentage e.g. 110R and 140R) - drought tolerant variety

Answer 97

``` Excess of water can lead to too much excessive growth. If soil is not free draining, waterlogging can occur, reducing amount of oxygen available to the roots. It can be managed by: - planting on a slope - free-draining soil - drainage system ```

Answer 98

Excess rainfall during pollination and fruit set can lead to millerandage or couleur. Rain in mid-season can reduce the rate of ripening of fruit. Heavy rain at harvest can lead to swollen fruit, reducing concentration, split berries (risk of grey rot) It can be managed by: - monitoring weather forecasts - choice of sites

Answer 99

If temperature falls below -20 C, the vine can be damaged or killed by winter freeze. Graft is most vulnerable, next the canes or cordons. Mostly at strongly continental climates (canada, china, Washington state) It can be managed by: - site selections (hillsides are up to 5 C, near large or deep bodies of water, vines where the snow settles most thickly) - choice of varieties (riesling or american/mongolian species) - protecting vines (build up soil to graft, burying vines, pruned to have several trunks)

Answer 100

When water is freezing in the vine's growing buds and shoots. Advective frosts are caused by large volumes of cold air moving in from very cold areas. Radiative frosts are the result of heat being lost on still, cool nights. It can be managed by: - reducing the risk (site selection, delaying pruning, late budding variety, high off the ground training, bare soil between the vines) - when frosts threatens (water sprinklers (aspersion), wind machines, oil or propane gas burning heaters)

Answer 101

``` Hail can cause a lot of damage in different stages of development It can be managed by: - rockets fired into thunderclouds - plots in different areas - crop insurance against hail ```

Answer 102

In prolonged hot weather: grape transpiration is much more limited and therefore less effective than leaf transpiration. Grapes can reach higher temperatures than the leaves and become burnt. Browning of the grape, bitter taste, increased susceptibility to rot. It can be managed by: row orientation - amount of direct sun exposure through canopy management - additional irrigation - agricultural sunscreen spray/cloth or net

Answer 103

``` Vineyard near woodland, pastures or other crops are more at risk. Cover crops or mulches can provide fuel for the fire. It can be managed by: - fire detectors and sprinklers - water tank - employee training ```

Answer 104

Smoke in the vineyard during growing season can lead to smoky or plastic aromas in the final wine. Smoke aroma can be absorbed by the grapes and in the grape can bind with sugar and form aroma-less precursors. The only become aromatic during fermentation. It can be managed by: - affected musts can be tested analytically - hand harvesting, gentle or whole bunch pressing, lower fermentation temperatures and reduced maceration times - Flash détente and reverse osmosis - blending with unaffected wines

Answer 105

1. Phylloxera 2. Nematodes 3. Grape Moths 4. Spider Mites 5. Birds 6. Mammals

Answer 106

This aphid-like insect feeds on and lays eggs on the roots of grape vines. Symptoms are: - vines die of drought - vine roots are covered with the insects/eggs - swellings on older roots - pale green leafs galls - slow stunted shoot growth It can be managed by: - use of v. berlandieri. v. riparia, v. rupestris - use of rootstock hybrid to resist lime in soil - use of rootstock that can withstand many pests - professional advice on rootstock

Answer 107

Nematodes are tiny worms that are very common in soils. They can damage the vine or carry diseases. Most known are the root-knot nematode and the dagger nematode (fan leaf virus) It can be managed by: - leave soil fallow for a few years - fumigate the soil/ plough in cover crop of mustard plant - use of nematode-resistant rootstocks

Answer 108

Light brown applemoth in australia, european grapevine moth in southern europe, grape berry moth in central and eastern north america. They can attack flowers. It can be managed by: - Biological controls (b. thuringiensis, sexual confusion, natural predators) - use of insecticide

Answer 109

Pacific spider mote in california, red spider mite/yellow spider mite in europe. They feed on the surface cells of leavers, this leeds to discoloration, reduction in photosynthesis, delayed ripening and reduction in yield. They thrive in dusty conditions It can be managed by: - use of water sprinklers and/or cover crops/mulches - encourage predatory mites - general pesticides

Answer 110

``` Birds eat grapes en damage growing berries. It can be managed by: - total netting - bird scarers/noises - falcons ```

Answer 111

They eat shoots, grapes and leaves. It can be managed by: - fencing

Answer 112

1. Powdery Mildew 2. Downy Mildew 3. Grey Rot 4. Eutypia Dieback 5. Phomopsis Cane and Leaf spot 6. Esca And others: black rot, black-foot disease, bot canker, anthracnose

Answer 113

It is caused by the fungus Erysiphe Necator (Oidium tuckeri). Chardonnay and CS are more susceptible, PN and Riesling not so much. It overwinters in buds and canes, attacks young green parts of the vine -> dull grey and then black patches. Causes reduced yield, berries can split at véraison. It grows at 25 C and thrives in shady conditions. It can be managed by: - keeping open canopy - application of sulfur - systemic fungicides

Answer 114

``` It is caused by Peronospora (water mould that lives in vine tissue). Attacks green parts of the pland, reducing yield by defoliating the vine. It needs rainfall and warm temperatures. Symptoms are yellow circular oil spots -> white fungal growth on the underside of leaves It can be managed by: - sprays made from copper salts - fungicides - good drainage and an open canopy ```

Answer 115

It is caused by Botrytis Cinerea. Results in loss of yield and drop of quality (colour, body and aroma/flavour). Varieties with tight bunches are most at risk: Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir etc. It becomes active in period of rainfall and high humidity. It can be managed by: - select grape variety with thick skin - open canopy - fungicide (no sulfur and copper) - Antagonistic bacteria e.g. bacillus subtilis

Answer 116

Also called dead arm. Is a fungal trunk disease that leads to rotten wood in vines. Infection occurs through pruning wounds in moderate temperatures and especially during rain. Susceptible varieties: Grenache CS, SB. It can be managed by: - pruning late and applying fungicides to pruning wounds - affected trunk cut back and dead wood burnt - biological controls e.g. bacillus subtilis - removing vine and replant

Answer 117

Causes reduction in crops, prevalent in years with cool and wet springs followed by humidity and moderate temperatures. Infected canes whiten and break off. Shoots develop brown cracks at their bases. Grenache is very susceptible, CS not. It can be managed by: - Fungicides, 3 weeks after budburst + every 2 weeks - remove diseased wood and burn it - prune early, not in wet weather

Answer 118

Complex fungal disease, group of organisms particularly prevalent in warmer and drier climates. It enters through pruning wounds. Symptoms include tiger-striping of the leaves and spotting inside the wood. It can be managed by: - disease-free stock - not pruning in the rain - remove prunings from vineyard - research is done with the application of B. subtilis

Answer 119

1. Pierce's disease 2. Grapevine yellows And others: bacterial blight and crown gall

Answer 120

Its a bacterial disease that quickly kills vines. The bacterium lives in the sap channels of vines, which it clogs, leading to shrivelling, dropping leaves ant the death of the vine between one and five years. It is spread by the sharpshooter. It is managed by: - There is no control - reducing the number of the sharpshooters - quarantine rules - research

Answer 121

It is a group of diseases caused by a type of bacteria. There is no treatment available. It is spread by leafhoppers and dirty nurseries. Symptoms include delayed budburst, drooping posture and the canopy turning yellow and red. It is managed by: - There is no control - controlling the vector by e.g. insecticides - in nurseries, bath pruning wood in hot water

Answer 122

1. Fanleaf virus | 2. leafroll virus

Answer 123

Group of diseases. Early shoot growth is stunted, canes can grow in distorted ways, leaves are very pale, malformed and can look like a fan. Disease is spread by dagger nematode It is managed by: - there is no cure, affected vines need to be removed - soil tests for the presence of the dagger nematode

Answer 124

Virus is spread b grafting and mealy bugs. It can reduce yield and affect quality. The virus slows down the growth of roots and shoots. Fruit needs more time to ripen and has more acidity, less colour and lower sugar. The downward rolling of the leaf occurs usually in the autumn. It is managed by: - There is no cure - Mealy bugs favour humid environment, so open canopies can help reduce the pests. - Natural predators of mealy bugs: ladybugs, lacewings and others

Answer 125

It was that grapes ripened 100 days after the beginning of flowering. However, the context for making this decision has changed due to: - generally warmer climate - better viticulture - focus on aroma and tannin ripeness

Answer 126

By potential alcohol levels. This is the amount of alcohol that would be created by fermenting all the sugar in grape must to alcohol. In cool regions, once potential alcohol has reached 9,5-11 per cent, the grapes could be harvested. The final alcohol percentage can be lifted by chaptalization

Answer 127

The threat of rain in the harvest period. Rain in the last days before harvest can lead to diluting of the juice or, in the worst case scenario, splitting of the skins due to rapid expansion, with consequent threat of grey rot and loss of some or all the harvest.

Answer 128

1. sugar levels: measured by a refractometer. Most dry wines are harvested between 19 and 25 Brix which will convert into 11-15% abv 2. Aroma and tannin levels: determined by taste Acidity and pH can be measured by respectively titration and a pH meter

Answer 129

1. Loire: Chenin blanc is harvested over a period of 4-6 weeks. Early for sparkling, mid for dry and off-dry, late for botrytis or late-harvest style 2. California: harvest of Zinfandel early in mid-august to create white zinfandel or in september for red wine.

Answer 130

When the temperature is below -8 degrees C.

Answer 131

- Machine harvesting preferred - Hand harvesting preferred - hand harvesting required

Answer 132

Machine harvesting is preferred for inexpensive to mid-priced wines and for large-scale production. To increase quality of grapes, steps can be taken (at costs): - selecting undesired fruit in front - bow-rod shaking machine - investing in latest machines with optical sorting - rigorous sorting in the winery

Answer 133

Advantages include: - faster and cheaper (in larger vineyards) - avoids lack of good workers - grapes can be harvested at night - in white wines, more fruit intensity because of preserved grapes - timing of harvest can wait and then carried out quickly Disadvantages include: - less gentle than hand- harvesting - not economic for small-scale vineyards - unsuitable for different varieties with different ripening - unsuitable on steep slopes or with limited access - quality of work is as good as the operator - rental for machinery - purchasing is a major investment

Answer 134

Advantages include: - highly selective picking - pickers can deal with steep slopes, irregular rows and mixed planting - if handled with care, crushing of the grapes will be minimal Disadvantages include: - more expensive - requires reliable work force - harvest in daylight, no avoidance of high temperatures

Answer 135

Style of wine: - whole bunches for premium sparkling wine (e.g. champagne) - whole bunches for (semi-)carbonic maceration (e.g. Beaujolais) - selective harvesting for botrytis wine (e.g. trockenbeerenauslese in the mosel) Because of the site: - steep slopes (e.g. Douro valley) - uneven land - bush vines (machine harvesting requires trellising)

Answer 136

1. water 2. alcohol 3. acids 4. wine aromatics 5. residual sugar 6. glycerol 7. Phenolics

Answer 137

Wine is approximately 85 per cent water by volume.

Answer 138

Ethanol is formed during fermentation, it has a slightly sweet smell. It contributes a sense of sweetness, bitterness and oral warmth. It contributes to the body and mouthfeel. High alcohol levels reduce the volatility of wine aromas and increase the sense of bitterness, these wines need sufficient fruit concentration to balance the alcohol

Answer 139

The two principal acids in wine (tartaric and malic) come from the grape. They make up two-third of total acidity. Other acids (lactic, acetic) are produced in fermentation. volatile acidity refers to acetic acid. This react with alcohol in the wine and becomes ethyl acetate (nail remover). Acidity contributes to the structure of the wine, making it refreshing. It should be in balance with fruit and if present, residual sugar. Total acidity and pH are linked, usually a wine with high acidity would have a low pH. Typically wines have a pH of 3-4. Acidity is measured as total acidity in grams per litre in tartaric acid. Typically it is in the range of 5,5-8,5 g/l. In france it may be expressed as sulfuric acid (ratio S-T is 1:1,5)

Answer 140

Wine aromatics come from different sources 1. From the grapes: e.g. methoxypyrazine (SB), rotundone (Syrah/GV) 2. created by fermentation due to presence of aroma precursors: thiol (4MMP:SB), Terpenes (Linalool/Geraniol in Muscat) 3. originating from fermentation: Esters (fresh and fruity; isoamyl acetate: banana; ethyl acetate), Acetaldehyde (oxidation of alcohol: stale-Fino), Diacetyl (buttery from MLF), yeast can produce reductive sulfur compounds 4. from other sources: vanillin (new oak), eucalyptol (volatized from eucalyptus trees by heat and absorped in waxy layer of grape skin)

Answer 141

Dry wines have RS 2-3 g/l. Sauternes 150g/l, PX 400 g/l. RS gives also more body EU classification for still wines: - Dry/sec/trocken: <4g/l or up to 9g/l when tartaric acid is not more than 2 g below RS content - Medium dry/demi-sec/ halbtrocken: 4-12g/l or up to 18 g/l when tartaric acid is not more than 10 g below RS content - Medium-Medium sweet/moelleux/lieblich: 12-45 g/l - Sweet/Doux/Süss: > 45 g/l

Answer 142

It is derived from te sugar in the grapes. It is more present in botrytis affected grapes and wines made with carbonic maceration. It contributes smoothness to the texture of wine and the perception of the fullness of the body, it has a slightly sweet taste.

Answer 143

Phenolics refer to compounds present in skins, stems and seeds. include anthocyanins and tannins. Tannins bind with proteins in the mouth giving a drying sensation on the palate.

Answer 144

1. Conventional, modern 2. Organic 3. Biodynamic 4. Natural

Answer 145

Founded on the work of Louis Pasteur about bacteria and yeasts. It includes: - temperature control - cold soaking. - use of additives and/or processing aids of many types - manipulations (pressing, filtration etc.) The aim of conventional, modern winemaking is to produce a stable wine which reliably shows its fruit characters and has no faults.

Answer 146

Only with certified organically-grown grapes with strict rules. These rules allow many common additives and processes used in conventional winemaking, including cultured yeasts and yeast nutrients and adding tannins. The certification agency is Ecocert. The rules about adding SO2 varies across countries. In the EU the addition of regulated amounts of SO2 are allowed. In the USA is it permitted.

Answer 147

Demeter is the main certifying association. This wine must be made from biodynamically grown grapes. In UK natural yeast are encouraged, but not required. In the USA natural yeast must be used and commercial yeasts only can be used after close reviewing of the case. Winemakers claim that biodynamic wines are more expressive of terroir

Answer 148

Natural winemakers reject modern interventions. Overall aim is 'nothing added, nothing removed'. In practice natural winemaking usually refers to wine made with the fewest possible manipulations, fermentation by ambient yeast, and an absolute minimum of added SO2 or with no added SO2. Associations are e.g. ViniVeri in Italy and L'Association des Vins Naturels in France. The wines are typically small batch and mid to premium priced.

Answer 149

Oxygen and sulfur dioxide

Answer 150

Timing and amount of oxygen exposure is key, making the difference between a positive an negative effect. Oxygen itself is not very reactive with compounds in wine, it creates product that do react.

Answer 151

Oxygen is generally threatening for the production of fresh, fruity wines. Many of the aroma compounds that give these wines their fruity style (e.g. thiol in SB) break down in the presence of oxygen. The products of oxidation reactions may contribute to unwanted aromas to the wine (e.g. acetaldehyde: give a nutty, apple aroma) Also the colour of white wines can turn darker. Red wines are protected by phenolics which contain anti-oxidants.

Answer 152

If oxygen is minimised: reductive or protective winemaking

Answer 153

- avoiding ullage in vessels - use of inert gases - addition of sulfur dioxide - use of impermeable containers - cool, constant temperatures

Answer 154

Oxygen is required at the start of fermentation of all wines to promote growth of a healthy yeast population (lack of can lead to reductive off-flavours). White: oxygen before fermentation leads to greater oxidation stability, increasing age potential. Red: essential in the reaction between antocyanins and tannins which leads to greater colour stability Greater range of characteristics: Fresh fruit becomes dried fruit, honey, caramel, coffee, leather and mushroom can develop. In Oloroso Sherry, Madeira and Tawny Port high level of oxidation is vital.

Answer 155

- use of cap management techniques - use of small wooden barrel - increasing number of rackings or amount of lees stirring during ageing - allowing ullage - use of techniques involving pumping oxygen through must

Answer 156

It is a preservative and has these properties: - anti-oxidant - anti-microbial

Answer 157

- gas - liquid - solid As sulfur dioxide, potassium metabisulfite or patassium bisulfite.

Answer 158

During fermentation a small amount (10 mg/l or less) is produced. White: 210 mg/l in the EU Red: 160 mg/l in the EU Sweet: higher levels are permitted If level is above 10 mg/l the label must state that the wine contains sulfites

Answer 159

When SO2 is added to must or wine, it dissolves and some of it reacts with compounds in the liquid. This proportion is called bound SO2 and it is ineffective against microbes and oxidation. The proportion that is not bound is called free SO2. The vast majority of the free SO2 exists in a relatively inactive form and a small proportion exists as molecular SO2, which is the most effective against oxidation and microbes.

Answer 160

The pH level of the must has a key effect on the efficacy of SO2 in that a greater proportion of free SO2 is in the molecular form at lower pH levels.

Answer 161

Larger amount when grapes are crushed, at the end of malolactic conversion and at bottling is considered most effective.

Answer 162

- to transport the grapes in small crates to the winery | - The small crates are tipped into larger hoppers (some growers add SO2 at this point)

Answer 163

- harvest at night - addition of SO2 - reduction of grapes temperature (cooling) - sanitising harvesting equipment/bins

Answer 164

1. chilling (helps preserve fruity aroma by a refrigeration unit/heat exchanger) 2. sorting (triage; depends of ripeness/health of the grapes, intended final wine, physical state) (for premium wines: remove unwanted grapes by picking, sorting by hand on a table, optical sorting) 3. destemming (only in hand harvesting by a destemmer) 4. Crushing (application of sufficient pressure to the grapes to break the skins and release the juice)

Answer 165

- Pneumatic presses (advantage is that pressure can be regulated. light pressure for less extraction etc. gives different blending components) - basket presses (vertical presses/champagne presses. used by small wineries to make premium wine) - horizontal screw press (same as basket, but horizontal) - continuous press (continually load possible)

Answer 166

1. enrichment 2. reducing alcohol 3. acidification 4. deacidification Adjustments to the must are generally made after must clarification for white wines

Answer 167

the general EU term refers to a range of practices: - adding dry sugar (chaptalisation) - grape must concentrate or rectified concentrated grape must (RCGM; flavourless syrup) - concentration by reverse osmosis, vacuum extraction, chilling (cryoextraction) Enrichment is permitted within a level. EU splits regions into temperatures Zone A: Germany: max enrichment +3% Zone CIIIb: Portugal, southern Spain etc: max enrichment +1,5%

Answer 168

This can be done by adding water to the must. But this also dilutes the grapes' aromas/flavours and acids. Other ways of reducing alcohol is by removing it from the wine (post-fermentation)

Answer 169

Acidification is routine is most warmer parts of the world. It can also be used to lower the pH. It is typically carried out by addition of tartaric acid. Other options are: - citric acid (not permitted in EU) - malic acid (less used by risk of MLF) - lactic acid (less harsh, used after MLF) Typically acidification starts before fermentation so the winemaker can benefit from the lower pH. Zone A: -1 to 0g/l expressed as tartaric acid Zone CIIIb: 0 to +2,5g/l Zone CI (Bordeaux, Northern Spain, Trentino Alto Adige) -1 to +2,5 g/l) It is not allowed to both chaptalize and acidify the must

Answer 170

Deacidification is carried out by adding calcium carbonate (chalk) or potassium carbonate and it lowers acidity by the formation and precipitation of tartrates. An other high tech option is deacidification by ion exchange

Answer 171

Alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide carried out by yeast in the absence of oxygen (anaerobically). It also produces heat.

Answer 172

1. Yeast 2. Temperature 3. Fermentation Vessels

Answer 173

Yeast is a group of microscopic fungi that convert sugar into alcohol and affect aroma/flavour characteristics of the wine. Yeast initially needs oxygen to multiply, but then anaerobically starts fermentation. The fermentation proces also produces: - volatile acidity - small amounts of naturally produced SO2 - wine aromatics - -- from aroma precursors (thiols, terpenes) - -- created by yeast: esters, reductive sulfur, acetaldehyde - glycerol Examples of yeast strains: - saccharomyces cerevisiae: most common. reliably ferments to dry - saccharomyces bayanus: for must with high potential alcohol or for re-fermenting sparkling wine If fermentation is stuck due to lack of nutrients (nitrogen), diammonium phosphate (DAP) or thiamine (B1) can be added as yeast nutrients

Answer 174

1. use of ambient yeast | 2. use of cultured yeast

Answer 175

Ambient yeast are present in the vineyard and the winery. Typically saccharomyces cerevisiae becomes the dominant yeast. Advantages include: - can add complexity - costs nothing to use - dominant yeast population is unique to a place or region - marketing Disadvantages include: - fermentation may start slowly (with risks) - fermentation to dry may take longer/risk of stuck fermentation (with risks) - a consistent product cannot be guaranteed

Answer 176

Usually from laboratory, single strains of saccharomyces cerevisiae. To use it, the must may be cooled to prevent fermentation by ambient yeast. Or, another option is to add SO2 to suppress the ambient yeast. A starter batch is made with the cultured yeast and then added to the tank of must Advantages include: - reliable, fast fermentation to dry - low levels of volatile acidity and given its speed, less danger from spoilage - consistent product - choice of yeast to affect the style of wine (e.g. neutral yeast for sparkling wine to enhance floral or fruity characteristics) Disadvantages include: - some believe it leads to similarity of fruit expression - adds the cost

Answer 177

Winemakers may favour a warm start to fermentation (25 C). Temperature helps to define the wine style. Above 35 C the fermentation may slow down and stop as yeasts struggle to survive Cool: 12-16: Fresher, fruitier white wines and rosé. Cool temp promote the production and retention of fruity aromas and flavours Mid-range: 17-25: Easy drinking fruity red wines to retain fruit aromas and for low tannin extraction. Middle of this temp range for less fruity white wines, top of this range for barrel-fermented white wines (to reduce formation of fruity esters e.g. isoamyl acetate) Warm: 26-32: Use for powerful red wines. Maximum extraction of colour and tannins, but can result in some loss of fruity flavours

Answer 178

Temperature in the cellar can be adjusted. However, modern wineries typically have fermentation control installed in many vessels. These use either water or glycol in jackets that surround vessels or in inserts that can be put into vessels. Pumping over/délestage can also help reduce the temperature.

Answer 179

- Stainless steel: easy to clean, comes in a large range of sizes, enables a high degree over temperature. These are neutral vessels en can help protect the wine from oxygen, they do not add flavours. High level of mechanisation is possible. - Concrete: They have a high thermal inertia, they maintain an even temperature much more efficiently than stainless steel. Smaller, egg-shaped vessels in concrete, which are very expensive, are said to set up convection currents that mix fermenting must and mix the lees during maturation - Wood: +1000 L in Alsace, Germany or Italy. Wood retains heat well, needs great care with hygiene as the pores in wood can harbour bacteria and spoilage organisms. The can be reused many times, however, they require capital investment when they are bought. Alternative options include: - plastic vessels: light, versatile, useful for small-batch fermentation. It is permeable to oxygen and difficult to control temperature - terracotta: used historically (Georgia, amphorae) and is in use in small scale production today.

Answer 180

Often called malolactic fermentation. It is the result of lactic acid bacteria converting malic acid into lactic acid, carbon dioxide and heat. It typically happens after alcoholic fermentation and occasionally during it. Conditions which encourage it to happen: - 18-22 C - moderate pH 3,3-3,5 - low total SO2 Certain conditions inhibit it: - temp <15 - low pH - moderate levels of SO2 - enzyme lysozyme Outcomes for MLF are - reduction in acidity and rise in pH - some colour loss in red wines - greater microbial stability - modification of flavour When MLF is done during fermentation it can increase fruity characteristics, reduce productions times, saving money

Answer 181

- acidity and/or pH can be adjusted in the same way as before fermentation - removal of alcohol by adding water (diluting), reverse osmosis (cross-flow filtration), spinning cone - adjust colour by e.g. MegaPurple (enhancing red colour in wine, not permitted in e.g. Ribera del Duero)

Answer 182

Maturation after fermentation is essential in determining the style and quality of wine. Key factors that may have an influence on the wine during maturation are oxygen, new wood and yeast lees.

Answer 183

Generally, oxidation leads to a gradual reduction in many primary aromas and a development of tertiary aromas. It can also influence the colour of the wine. For red wines this means that colour is more stable and intense. Anthocyanins bind with tannins, which, for example, protects anthocyanins from being adsorbed by yeast lees or bleached by SO2 additions. In red wines, oxidation reactions also seem to result in the softening of tannins. It is linked to anthocyanin and tannin bonding. In red wine, the anti-oxidative phenolics can protect the wine from oxidation, so the reaction takes more time to take place. Warm temperature increases the speed of oxidation.

Answer 184

Wooden vessels are used for gaining a slow and gradual exposure to oxygen. Some oxygen is released from the pores in the vessel within the first month that the vessel is filled. The times when the wine is most exposed to oxygen in this process is during any transfer of the wine, such as during racking, lees stirring or topping up in which the bung is removed. Water and alcohol in liquid form impregnate the wood. Within the staves of wood the water and alcohol turn to vapour (evaporate) and diffuse, along the concentration gradient to the air outside the vessel. This leads to a gradual concentration of the other components of the wine. Small vessels have a large surface area to volume ratio, increasing the rate at which wine is lost.

Answer 185

Micro-oxygenation involves bubbling oxygen through wine. The dose of oxygen is typically in units of mg/l per month. It is usually carried out in stainless steel tanks for a number of months post alcoholic fermentation. It is thought to increase colour stability and intensity, soften tannins, improve texture and reduce the presence of any unripe, herbaceous flavours. additional benefits are that it provides the effects of gentle exposure to oxygen more quickly than barrel ageing without needing expensive barrels, and the rate of oxygen exposure can be controlled much more tightly than it could be in a barrel. If used in conjunction with oak alternatives it can also help to integrate the influence of the oak.

Answer 186

Wine mature in stable, cool temperatures to slow down the rate of oxidation and other reactions. Whites (8-12) and reds (12-16). Temperature determines what reactions can occur and how quickly various reactions will occur. Low humidity and warm temperature increase the rate of wine loss in wooden vessels. Low humidity (<70 per cent) causes water to be lost at a greater rate than alcohol. In modern cellars there are temperature and humidity control systems to keep them constant.

Answer 187

1. Age of the vessel 2. Size of the vessel 3. Type of wood 4. Production of the vessel

Answer 188

New wood contains various extractable compounds. A barrel loses about 50 per cent of its new oak flavours during the first year of use. Where new oak is used, it is typically as a proportion of the blend with wine that has been stored in pre-used barrels

Answer 189

Barriques (225l) hold a relatively small volume of liquid compared to the surface area of the vessel, so any extraction from the wood an exposure to oxygen is greater in small vessels than in large vessels (foudres 1000l).

Answer 190

European (French, Hungarian, Russian, Slavonian) or American oak. The both have significant levels of vanillin. American oak contains higher levels of lactones which give aromas of coconut. American greater intensity of flavours, European more tannin. European barrels are more expensive (600-1200) than American barrels (300-600). European oak must be split to create staves whereas American oak can be sawn. This means there are more vessels to make from the same amount of American oak. The tightness of the grain, more tightly grained wood: slower growth of tree. Wood with a tight grain slows down the extraction of compounds compared with coarser grained wood, and can alter what particular compound are most extracted

Answer 191

First, wood needs to be seasoned outside for 2-3 years. This lowers the humidity levels in the wood, reduces bitter flavours and increases some aroma compounds (e.g. cloves). Then, the staves are heated so they can be bent into shape. This also transforms the tannins and aroma compounds in the oak. Temperature and length of heat exposure is referred to as level of toasting (light, medium, heavy). It gives notes of spice, caramel, roasted nuts, char and smoke. The longer a wine is aged in a wooden vessel the greater the extraction of compounds from the wood and the greater the exposure to oxygen. Barrel maturation is expensive - expensive to buy not much liquid in it - monitoring and performing winemaking options is labour intensive. Just like sanitation of the barrels - slow process (1-2 years) Alternatives include, oak chips and oak staves.

Answer 192

Lees describe the sediment that settles at the bottom of a wine vessel. It is made up of dead yeast, dying yeast and bacteria, grape fragments, precipitated tannins, nutrients and other insoluble compounds. First 24h: gross lees, smaller parts: fine lees. Lees may be removed by racking. After fermentation, the yeast cells will very slowly die and break down (autolysis), releasing compounds that contribute flavours, body and texture to the wine. Some of these compounds bind with phenolic compounds in the grapes, reducing colour and softening tannins. Compounds from the lees also bind with certain extractable components of the wood and can therefore reduce astringency and modify the flavours from the wood. In white wines the aromas ar describes as yoghurt-like, dough-like , biscuity or toasty. Lees ageing helps in the stabilisation of the wine. Lees help to protect the wine from oxidation. Too much lees can cause volatile, reductive sulfur compounds. Lees provide nutrients for microbes. Stirring of lees: bâtonnage.

Answer 193

Racking is the process of transferring wine from one vessel to another with the aim of removing sediment from the wine. This can be gross less, fine lees or other solid material. Racking can be an oxidative process, this can be prevented by using pressure from inert gas to push the wine out through a hose into the new vessel, which would have been flushed with an inert gas.

Answer 194

- from different grape varieties - from different locations - from different grape growers or businesses - from different vintages - that have been treated differently in the winery - that have been treated equally in the winery, but are in different vessels for logistical reasons

Answer 195

1. Balance 2. Consistency 3. Style 4. Complexity 5. Minimise faults 6. Volume 7. Price

Answer 196

Blending is best carried out before stabilisation in case any instabilities arise from the blend

Answer 197

1. Sedimentation 2. Centrifugation 3. Fining 4. Filtration

Answer 198

Sedimentation is the most gentle form of clarification. Number of racking required depends on the size of the containers being used and the available labour. And because is takes time it is usually only suitable for premium or super-premium wines.

Answer 199

This is a rapid process that spins the wine at high rotational speed to clarify it. It can replace depth filtration and allow early bottling

Answer 200

This is a procedure in which a fining agent is added to speed up the process of the precipitation of suspended material. The agents can be of protein or mineral origin. It removes a small proportion of unstable colloids from the wine. They also can remove positive compounds from wine or make the wine unstable. Three categories: - those that remove unstable proteins - those that remove phenolics that contribute undesirable colour and bitterness - those that remove colour and off-odeurs

Answer 201

The proteins in red wines bind with tannins, they are removed by racking. In white/rose wines they can agglomerate into a visible haze if warmed up. Bentonite: a form of clay which adsorbs unstable proteins and unstable colloidal colouring matter. It has minimal influence on the flavour and texture of the wine.

Answer 202

Fining agents that remove phenolics that contribute undesirable colour and bitterness: - Egg white: removes harsh tannins and clarify wine. It is gentle to the wine. Allergen! - Gelatin: extracted from pork that aids clarification, removes bitterness and astringency in red wine and browning in white wine pressings. Small amounts otherwise it strips flavour and character and a risk of haze. - Casein: milk-derived that removes browning from white wines and clarifies it to some extent. Allergen! - Isinglass: derived form fish bladders, clarifies white wines, giving them a bright appearance. Over-fining means a fishy smell and risk of haze - Vegetable protein products: derived from potatoes or legumes - PVPP: Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, removes browning and astringency from oxidised white wine. Gentler than charcoal

Answer 203

Charcoal: this removes brown colours and some off-odeurs. Over-fining is a risk and leads to removing desirable aromas and flavours.

Answer 204

This is a physical separation technique used to eliminate solids from a suspension by passing it through a filter medium. Filtration is the most common way of clarifying wine. Two main types: - depth filtration - surface filtration

Answer 205

Depth filtration is not an absolute filter. - Diatomaceous earth: rotary drum vacuum filters (oxidative process) or with enclosed DE filters that can be flushed with an inert gas - Sheet filters: plate and frame or pad filters. The more sheets there are in the filter, the quicker the wine can be filtered

Answer 206

Surface filtration is absolute filtration - Membrane filters: cartridge filters catch particles that will ot go through the pore size of the filter. Wine must be pre-filtered first because otherwise the filters get blocked. It removes yeast and bacteria. - Cross-flow filters: Tangential filters, they allow wine to pass through the filter while uniquely cleaning the surface of the filter as it works.

Answer 207

Stabilisation is tackling potential for unwanted hazes, deposits in the bottle and rapid changes in the wine. - Protein stability (fining with bentonite) - Tartrate stability - Microbial stability

Answer 208

Tartrates are potassium bitartrate or calcium tartrate. - Cold stabilisation: -4 C for around 8 days, tartrates are less soluble at cold temperatures. This only removes potassium bitartrate. - contact process: Potassium bitartrate is added to the wine to speed up the crystallisation process, wine is cooled to 0 C. - Electrodialysis: Charged membranes removes selected ions. It removes both tartrates and tartrate ions. - Ion exchange: It replaces potassium and calcium ions with hydrogen or sodium ions, not very healthy. - Carboxymethylcellulose: This is exctracted from wood and prevents tartrates from developing to a visible size. Not suitable for reds as it reacts with tannins - Metatartaric acid: prevents the growth of potassium bitartrate and calcium tartrate crystals. Compound is unstable, it is used on reds. CMC is more stable for white and rose.

Answer 209

Sterile filtration or to add sorbic acid and SO2 which inhibits yeasts from growing. Only lactic acid bacteria and Brettanomyces can survive the low pH and high alcohol levels of wine. If MLF has not been carried out and it start in the bottle it results in cloudiness. If Brett is a problem, the wine can be treated with DMDC (dimethyl dicarbonate; Velcorin) before bottling

Answer 210

Before finishing options are carried out, the winemaker wille make a full chemical analysis and measure: alcohol, residual sugar and free SO2. - Adjusting the level of SO2: make sure it is within legal limits (white: 25-45; red: 30-55; sweet: 30-60) - reducing dissolved oxygen: this can accelerate the speed of ageing, it can be removed by flushing with and inert gas: sparging - adding carbon dioxide: tiny bit of spritz from CO2 in the bottled wine for added freshness

Answer 211

1. Cloudiness and hazes 2. Tartrates 3. Re-fermentation in the bottle: bubbles accompanied with cloudiness 4. Cork taint: mouldy, wet cardboard smell, reduces fruit character and shortens the finish 5. Oxidation 6. Volatile acidity: pungent smell of nail varnish and/or vinegar. Due to acetic acid bacteria, inadequate levels of SO2, exposure to oxygen. 7. Reduction: caused by high levels of volatile, reductive sulfur compounds, from onion to rotten eggs. Produced by yeast under stress or by complete exclusion of oxygen during ageing. Can be avoided by ensuring the yeast had sufficient nutrients and oxygen. 8. Light strike: UV radiation giving odours of dirty drains 9. Brettanomyces: animal, spicy or farmyard smell. Difficult to eradicate.

Answer 212

Too much oxygen will lead to premature browning and oxidised character, too little oxygen may lead to reductive character - amount of dissolved oxygen in the wine - oxygen in the head space - amount of oxygen in the cork or other enclosure - oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of cork or other enclosure

Answer 213

- Glass: inert material, sterile condition, inexpensive to manufacture, 100% recyclable, best option for ageing. However, great carbon footprint, heavy to transport, fragile, rigid and risk of light strike - Plastic: PET, is light, tough, inexpensive, recyclable, can be made impermeable, used in range of sizes - Bag in box: flexible pour size, protection from oxygen, range of sizes, easy to store, low environmental impact, slightly higher SO2 to counter oxidation, low dissolved oxygen, no head space and low carbon dioxide. - Brick: Tetra pack - Pouch - Can

Answer 214

Enclosures: - Protect the wine from rapid oxidation - be inert - be easy to remove and re-insert - be cheap, recyclable, free from faults 1. Natural cork 2. Technical cork 3. Synthetic closures 4. Screw capp 5. Glass stoppers

Answer 215

It is light, flexible, inert and come from a renewable natural source. Shorter, lower grade corks are cheaper and may be used for inexpensive wines intended for short term consumption. Cork can taint wine through the creactions of TCA (2,4,5-trichloroanisole) resulting in unpleasant smell of mould or wet cardboard. In 3-5 percent of bottles closed with a cork. Natural corks have a variable rate of oxygen ingress. Corks can be cleaned with steam extraction or can be made with plastic (technical cork). Scrutinous control or a barrier between cork and wine is also an option

Answer 216

These are made from cork, cheapest one is the agglomerated cork in which cork granules are glued together.

Answer 217

Food-grade plastic with a silicone coating, is more difficult to re-insert in the bottle. Moulded closures offer limited protection from oxygen ingress. Other issue is flavour scalping as the plastic absorbs some flavour molecules

Answer 218

An aluminium close rolled onto the outside of a bottle neck, the seal with the wine is a wad of either tin or Saran. Wines with screwcaps can become reductive, winemakers resolve this by a slightly lower SO2.

Answer 219

Vinolok - closure made from glass, but where the actual seal is formed by a plastic ring. They look attractive and are very expensive

Answer 220

Vintage port, premium German riesling, crus classés Bordeaux. Closures are selected based on the oxygen transmission rate. Generally a wine that has a high level of dissolved oxygen, is bottled with a large headspace of oxygen and/or with a high OTR closure is likely to oxidise more quickly than those more protected from oxygen. Ageing should be undisturbed in a coll dark place with a constant temperature around 10-15 C and with constant humidity.

Answer 221

cleaning sanitation sterilisation

Answer 222

The entire product is controlled by the producer. Disadvantages are: - smaller amount of wine that can be shipped - financial and environmental costs - potential damage to the wine - shorter shelf life

Answer 223

Shipping in bulk can be done in a flexitank or an ISO tank. Advantages are: - more environmentally friendly - cheaper - greater thermal inertia - strict quality control - wine can be adjusted - shelf life can be extended Disadvantage is the loss of the direct relationship with the producer, and the transfer of business and employment opportunities from producer countries to the countries close to market.

Answer 224

Skin contact: this is the process of leaving the juice in contact with the skins to extract compounds from the skins. If used too excessively the wine can taste bitter and feel coarse. Most white wines are not made with skin contact, the principle aroma and flavour compounds of white grapes are in the pulp. The grapes are crushed, the free run juice is drained off and the remaining grape mass is sent to the press.

Answer 225

Because skin contact maximises flavour extraction, it is most effectively used on aromatic grape varieties that have lots of aroma compounds that can be extracted (Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Viognier, Muscat, SB). It also enhances texture.

Answer 226

Time and temperature. The longer the skin contact, more extraction of flavour and tannins. When the juice is chilled, it reduces the rate of extraction, permitting more control. It also reduces the risk of oxidation and microbial spoilage. It is chilled down to 15 C

Answer 227

Orange wines: wines made from white grapes that are fermented on their skins without temperature control or sulfur additions. The colour of the wine (amber) develops due to the oxidation of compounds extracted from the grape skins.

Answer 228

Pressing will be as gently as possible. The choice is whether to destem the grapes before pressing. The option is to use whole bunch pressing, this reduces the chance of oxidation, especially if inert gases are used with the press. This is only an option if the grapes are hand harvested. If grapes are destemmed and crushed, the free run juice is drained off. This juice is lowest in solids, tannin and colour. Then, at start of pressing the press juice comes. This has lower acidity and less sugar than free run juice, they usually also have fuller body

Answer 229

A technique of deliberately exposing must to oxygen. This targets compounds that oxidise early, these turn brown. During fermentation these compounds precipitate, returning the wine to normal colour. The aim is to produce a wine that is more stable against oxidation after fermentation, it can help remove bitter compounds and can destroy some of the most volatile aroma compounds. Best suited to neutral grape varieties such as Chardonnay

Answer 230

The aim of clarification is to reduce the amount of suspended solids in the must. Aimed proportion of solids is 0,5-2 per cent. High level of solids give greater range of aromas, lower level of solids give fruity aromas. 1. Sedimentation 2. Flotation 3. Centrifugation 4. Clarifying agents

Answer 231

It is a method of must clarification. It is the simplest form and called settling. Must is chilled to 4C. It takes about 12-24 hours. The clear juice is transferred to the fermentation vessel (racking). After sedimentation the must can be filtered through cross flow/depth filters.

Answer 232

It is a method of must clarification. This involves bubbling gas up through the must. Inert gas is typically used, fining agents must be used to helpt bind the particles together and it can only be used on must.

Answer 233

It is a method of must clarification. This method clarifies the must quickly, but it is an expensive investment. It can increase the musts exposure to oxygen unless inert gases are used.

Answer 234

It is a method of must clarification. Pectolytic enzymes break down pectins in the must (they are naturally found in plant cell walls), this allows are more rapid separation between the liquid juice and solids. Can only be used on must.

Answer 235

Usually, white wines are fermented around 15 C to best produce and retain aroma and flavour compounds that are desired. When oak is used, fermentation is slightly warmer (17-25) to promote yeast health and avoid the production of esters e.g. isoamyl acetate (banana) Usually, stainless steel tanks are used for fruity, floral wines due to the ability to control temperatures. Concrete and old oak can be used in slightly warmer temperatures. Small oak barrels can be used for premium and super-premium chardonnay. These wines have a deeper colour an fuller body and more texture because of more contact with lees.

Answer 236

Reduction of acidity and increase in microbiological stability and modification of flavours. Mostly used in low-aromatic varieties to enhance complexity.

Answer 237

Particularly on premium and super-premium low-aromatic variety (e.g. chardonnay). To enhance the texture and complexity of flavours

Answer 238

The aim of ageing on the lees are to give more body, soften the mouthfeel and help to stabilize the wine. They also protect the wine from oxygen and may introduce some reductive sulfur compounds. Lees stirring is referred to as bâtonnage, it is traditionally done with a rod which enhances oxidation as the bung hole needs to be opened. Nowadays, barrel racks that can be rolled are also used.

Answer 239

- concentrating the sugar in the grape must - stopping fermentation before dryness - blending in a sweetening component The objective is to produce a wine with balanced residual sugar and acidity and with flavour concentration appropriate for the level of sugar

Answer 240

All options include the reduction of the water content in the grape. 1. Drying grapes on the vine: stage 4 of ripening (Late harvest/Vendanges Tardives/Spätlese). Or the cane is cut from the vine a short time before harvest, this way the grapes shrivel more quickly (Jurançon) 2. Drying grapes off the vine: grapes are laid out to dry (valpolicella) 3. Noble rot: Grapes must be fully ripe, conditions must be humid in the morning sunny in the afternoon. This gives aromas of honey, apricot, citrus zest, ginger and dried fruit. (Sauternes, (Trocken)Beerenauslesse, Tokaji) The rot is not uniform, so hand picking. The fungus contributes and enzyme (laccase) that can oxidise and is relatively resistant to SO2. 4. Freezing the grape on the vine: Eiswein/Icewine. The ice remains in the press and the sugar content of the juice is concentrated. The vines need to be winter hardy and produce grapes with resilient skins (Riesling/Vidal). The effect can be created through cryoextraction.

Answer 241

The advantage is that the winemaker has control over the level of sugar in the final wine and level of alcohol. Moscato d'Asti: 120-130 g/l sugar and 4,5-6 %. Ways of interrupting fermentation: - Chilling to below 10 C - And/or adding high dose of SO2 Then the wine is racked off and sterile filtered

Answer 242

It is mostly used on high volumes of inexpensive wine. | Sugar, RCGM, unfermented grape juice (Süssreserve) can be used. Use of sugar is not permitted in the EU

Answer 243

Many of the choices are focused on the extraction of anthocyanins, tannins and flavours from the grape skins. The levels and nature of each of these components have a defining influence on the style of wine. Factors that affect extraction are: (=more extraction) - temperature (higher) - time on skins (more time) - management of skins and juice (more mixing) - medium in which extraction takes place (alcoholic/aqueous solutions)

Answer 244

Anthocyanins as single molecules are not very stable and the colour can be lost in different procedures. They become more stable when they bind with tannins, oxygen facilitates this reaction. Gentle oxidation of the wine can help to promote colour stability Tannins are more soluble in alcoholic solutions, anthocyanins more in aqueous solutions)

Answer 245

Although the phenolics found in the skins of black grapes make them less vulnerable to oxidation, chilling still helps to slow own oxidation as well as microbial spoilage

Answer 246

1. maceration before fermentation: extract colour and flavours without tannins 2. maceration during fermentation

Answer 247

1. Cold soaking: chilled to 4-10 C to reduce rate of oxidation, microbial spoilage and spontaneous fermentation. Lasts 3-7 days with use of punching down/pumping over. It is a gentle technique and very commonly conducted on PN to promote colour intensity 2. Macerations using heat: Higher temperatures lead to greater extraction. Thermovinification (50-60 C for minutes/hours) or Flash Détente (85-90 C, <2 minutes, must is rapidly cooled down). With both methods colour stability is an issue. Both techniques can be used to deal with grey rot, FD can be used if smoke taint is the problem.

Answer 248

Mostly cap management techniques are used, mixing promotes extraction. Method, frequency, timing and temperature play a role in the effect of cap management. Techniques are: - Punching down (pigeage) - pumping over (remontage) - rack and return (delestage): most commonly used for red wines where medium flavour, colour and tannin is desired. - Ganimede tanks: bubble up CO2 through the must/wine. High levels of colour, tannins and flavour intensity (CS or Syrah) - Rotary fermenters: medium to high levels of colour tannin and flavour intensity (CS or Syrah) Other macerations options during fermentation include: - Must concentration (saignée) - Co-fermentation (Rhone Valley- Côte Rotie with Syrah and Viognier)

Answer 249

It is very important that the stems are ripe, they can add spicy or herbal and add some tannins. The objective is to create and oxygen free environment for the uncrushed fruit. The grapes change from aerobic respiration to anaerobic metabolism, this means that some of the sugar is converted into alcohol (=intracellular fermentation). Malic acid is also broken down to create ethanol, this lowers the total acidity and raises the pH. Glycerol levels increase which can add texture and aromas of kirsch, banana, bubble gum and cinnamon. 1. Carbonic maceration 2. Semi-carbonic maceration 3. Whole berries/bunches with crushed fruit

Answer 250

Whole uncrushed bunches in a vessel, topped of with CO2 to remove all oxygen. Intracellular fermentation starts. Once alcohol level reaches 2 per cent, grape skins start to split. The juice is generally drained and the grapes are pressed to separate juice from skins. This method extracts colour, but little tannin. These wines are defined by their fruity, low tannin profile and are best consumed within a year after harvest Example: Beaujolais, particularly Beaujolais Nouveau

Answer 251

Does not involve filling the vessel with CO2. Bottom grapes are crushed under the weight and some juice is released. Ambient yeast start to ferment the juice. This fermentation produces CO2 which fills the vessel and the remaining intact grapes undergo carbonic maceration. If the winemaker wants to make a wine with a slightly more concentration, body and tannin, the alcoholic fermentation may continue on the skins and involve pigeage/remontage. This approach can lead to a better integration of the aromas from intracellular fermentation with aromas from the grape variety. It results in a wine with more fruitiness and softer mouthfeel than crushed fruit fermentation.

Answer 252

Although the whole berries/bunches in the vessel are not blanketed in CO2, they are largely submerged by the crushed grapes and therefore intracellular fermentation takes place. More carbonic characteristics can be achieved by raising the percentage of whole berries/bunches. They are progressively crushed during fermentation as the cap is regularly punched down. It is thought to give a smoother texture and more vibrant and fresh primary aromas

Answer 253

Higher temperatures promote extraction. If a fruity, low tannin wine is produced, fermentation is typically at 20 C. Production of wine with concentration and tannin structure to age is fermentation at warmer temperature, 30 C. Red wines may be fermented in stainless steel, concrete or wooden vessels, with open or closed tops. It is thought that fermentation in oak gives a rounder mouthfeel to the wine and leads to better integration of oak compounds during maturation. Concrete and stainless steel help to retain fruit flavours

Answer 254

This practice is thought to further extract tannins and encourage the polymerisation of tannins, with the aim of improving tannin structure and texture and the wine's ageing potential.

Answer 255

Free run wine will be drained from the fermentation vessel and the mass of grape skins then removed for pressing. These two may be mixed as a blending component to add extra colour, flavour and tannins. Timing is relatively variable. From pressing in carbonic maceration at 2% to pressing after a period of post-fermentation maceration. The winemaker also has the option to press straight after alcoholic fermentation is complete, or press just before the end of fermentation. Usually with the intention that the wine will finish fermenting in barrels, this is thought to lead to a better integration of oak flavours and a rounder mouthfeel.

Answer 256

It is routinely carried out for red wines. MLF in oak barrels can lead to a better integration of oak characteristics during maturation.

Answer 257

Majority of mid-market, premium and super-premium wines will be matured in oak vessel for at least a few months. A proportion of new oak may be used if the flavours of oak would enhance the complexity of the wine. The gentle oxidation that occurs, helps to soften tannins and can lead to the development of tertiary aromas and flavours that can enhance complexity and quality. Wines that do not mature on oak: Loire Valley CF, Spanish Mencias, Argentine Malbec

Answer 258

It can help soften tannins, however also can reduce colour intensity. It is not typical to keep gross lees, nor to stir the lees when making red wine.

Answer 259

1. Direct pressing 2. Short maceration 3. Blending Colour is a vital characteristic of rosé wine. Colour decreases during the fermentation process and this means that, when making wines by direct pressing or short maceration, a certain amount of predictive skill and experience is required to achieve the desired colour in the final wine.

Answer 260

Makes the lightest coloured rosés. Black grape variety are either whole bunch pressed or destemmed and immediately pressed to reduce any maceration. Use of pneumatic press with inert gas in typical. Wines are calld vin gris/provence rose. White grapes can also be co-pressed and co-fermented with black grapes to lend extra acidity and help achieve a paler colour (Rolle-Vermentino in production of provence rose)

Answer 261

A short period of pre-fermentation maceration before pressing with the use of an inert gas. Then the wine is fermented like a white wine. It produces rosé wines that are deeper in colour and more pronounced in flavour (spanish rosé and rosés of Tavel) This way the rosé is sometimes the by product of must concentration in red wine production (saignée). Potential disadvantage is that black grapes will have been grown and harvested as if they were going to make a red wine.

Answer 262

Blending a small proportion of red wine with white wine. It is simple and cheap and not everywhere allowed. Mostly used for inexpensive wines.

Answer 263

1. Viticulture for rosé wines: medium-high levels of acidity, low-medium levels of alcohol and fresh fruit flavours. These come from grapes in cool regions or grapes in a cooler site of a warmer region. Harvest time is earlier than for black grapes, this helps to retain acidity and obtain delicate, fresh red fruit characteristics. Either hand or machine harvesting can be carried out 2 Fermentation, MLF and maturation: pre-fermentation adjustments can be made to acidity or sugar levels. Fermentation is carried out at 12-16 C. Stainless steel tanks are often used, occasionally old or new oak is used to provide more texture. MLF is usually avoided. Maturation for a short period on lees and/or in oak vessels can be done to add texture and body to the wine. Appearance is important, majority of rosé wines are fined and filtered to increase clarity. Sterile filtering is important for wines with residual sugar.

D1 Wine Production - 2020 Flashcards

(288 cards)