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Day 2.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the blood composition?

A

55%: plasma
1%: buffy coat
45%: erythocytes

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2
Q

what is blood plasma composed of?

A

-55% of whole blood
-least dense component
-Straw colored, viscous
-90% water
-10% solutes
nutrients
gases
salts
hormones
proteins

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3
Q

what are the major categories of plasma proteins?

A
  1. Albumins
    smallest and most abundant
    contribute to viscosity and osmolarity
    influence blood pressure, flow, and fluid balance
  2. Globulins (antibodies)
    provide immune system functions
  3. Fibrinogen
    Precursor of fibrin threads that help form blood clots

Serum: Identical to plasma except for the absence of fibrinogen

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4
Q

what are the functions of albumins?

A

smallest and most abundant
contribute to viscosity and osmolarity
influence blood pressure, flow, and fluid balance

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5
Q

what are the functions of globulins?

A

(antibodies)
provide immune system functions

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6
Q

what are the functions of fibrinogen?

A

Precursor of fibrin threads that help form blood clots

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7
Q

what are the formed elements?

A

-originate in bone marrow (hematopoiesis)
-do not divide
-survive in the blood only a few days

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8
Q

what are the three clases of formed elements?

A

Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets

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9
Q

Name the formed elements of blood

A
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10
Q

what is hematopoiesis?

A

Blood Cell Formation

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11
Q

Where does hematopoiesis occur?

A

Occurs in red bone marrow
Red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles and
proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur

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12
Q

what cells are involved with hematopoiesis?

A

Hemocytoblasts
Hematopoietic stem cells (pluripotent stem cells)
Give rise to all formed elements
Hormones and growth factors push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development

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13
Q

what are structural characteristics of erythrocytes?

A

Biconcave discs

Anucleate

Hemoglobin (Hb)
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14
Q

what is the formation of red blood cell production?

A

Erythropoiesis

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15
Q

what is used to stimulate erythropoiesis?

A

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Direct stimulus for erythropoiesis
Released by the kidneys in response to hypoxia

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16
Q

what are the functions of erythrocytes?

A

RBC: dedicated to respiratory gas transport
Hemoglobin binds reversibly with oxygen

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17
Q

what makes up hemoglobin?

A

Hemoglobin consists of globin (two
alpha and two beta polypeptide
chains) and four heme groups

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18
Q

what respiratory gases does erythocytes transport?

A

Oxygen:
98.5 % in hemoglobin (binds with iron of heme group)
1.5 % dissolved in plasma.

The association of O2 and hemoglobin is affected by:
pH
Temperature
pO2 and pCO2

Carbon dioxide:
7 % dissolved in plasma,
23 % in hemoglobin (binds with globin)
70 % as bicarbonate ions (HCO3−)

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19
Q

Name the RBC stages

A

hemopoietic stem cell
erythocyte (CFU)
erythoblast
reticulocyte
erythocyte

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20
Q

how is erythropoiesis controlled?

A

Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
regulated by the liver and kidneys

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21
Q

what is the process of the destruction of erythocytes?

A
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22
Q

what is agglutination?

A

Antibody molecule binding to antigens
Causes clumping of red blood cells

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23
Q

what is a universal donor?

A

-Type O: most common blood type
-Lacks RBC antigens
-Donor’s plasma may have both antibodies against recipient’s RBCs (anti-A and anti-B)

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24
Q

what is a universal recipient?

A

-Type AB: rarest blood type
-Lacks plasma antibodies; no anti-A or anti-B

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25
ABO group
26
Label the correct plasma antibodies and the blood that can be recieved
27
what is a transfusion reaction?
-donor RBCs agglutinated by recipient plasma, which can lead to blockages of small vessels
28
what is the Rh group?
-Rh (C, D, E) agglutinogens discovered in rhesus monkey in 1940: -Rh D is the most reactive and a patient is considered blood type Rh+ if having D antigen on RBCs -Rh frequencies vary among ethnic groups
29
what types of wbc?
Granulocytes Neutrophils (50 – 70%) Eosinophils (2 – 4%) Basophils (0.5 – 1%) Agranulocytes Lymphocytes (25 – 45%) Monocytes (3 – 8%)
30
Name the wbc type
31
what are agranulocte cells?
-Lymphocytes (25% to 33%) Variable amounts of bluish cytoplasm (scanty to abundant); ovoid/round, uniform dark violet nucleus -Monocytes (3% to 8%) Usually largest WBC; ovoid, kidney-, or horseshoe-shaped nucleus
31
what are granulocyte cells?
-Neutrophils (60% to 70%): polymorphonuclear leukocytes Barely visible granules in cytoplasm; three- to five-lobed nucleus -Eosinophils (2% to 4%) Large rosy-orange granules; bilobed nucleus -Basophils (less than 1%) Large, abundant, violet granules (obscure a large S-shaped nucleus)
32
WBC pathway
33
what are platelets?
-Also called Thrombocytes -Small fragments of megakaryocytes -Required for blood clotting -Granules contain: Serotonin Ca2+ Enzymes ADP Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
34
what is thrombopoiesis?
Platelet formation Formation is regulated by thrombopoietin
35
what is hemostasis?
The cessation of bleeding Stopping potentially fatal leaks Hemorrhage: excessive bleeding
36
what are the hemostatic mechanism?
Vascular spasm Platelet plug formation Blood clotting (coagulation)
37
Label the circulation of the heart
38
Label the heart in the mediastinum
38
Label the components of the heart
39
Label the heart in a superior view
40
Label the layers of the heart
41
List the layers of the heeart from most superficial to deepest
Pericardium: Fibrous pericardium Serous pericardium 2a) Parietal pericardium - Pericardial cavity (filled with pericardial fluid) 2b) Visceral pericardium (same layer as epicardium) Heart wall: Epicardium (same layer as visceral pericardium) Myocardium Endocardium
41
what are the functions of the heart valves?
ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart
42
what are the valves of the heart?
Atrioventricular (AV) valves Semilunar (SL) valves
43
when do AV valves open and close?
-AV valves open; atrial pressure greater than ventricular pressure -AV valves closed; atrial pressure less than ventricular pressure
44
When do SL valves open and close?
| As ventricles contract , intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushe
45
what is the blood flow path?
1. Blood enters right atrium from superior and inferior venae cavae. 2. Blood in right atrium flows through right AV valve into right ventricle. 3. Contraction of right ventricle forces pulmonary valve open. 4. Blood flows through pulmonary valve into pulmonary trunk. 5. Blood is distributed by right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it unloads CO_2 and loads O_2. 6. Blood returns from lungs via pulmonary veins to left atrium. 7. Blood in left atrium flows through left AV valve into left ventricle. 8. Contraction of left ventricle (simultaneous with step 3) forces aortic valve open. 9. Blood flows through aortic valve into ascending aorta. 10. Blood in aorta is distributed to every organ in the body, where it unloads O_2 and loads CO_2 11. Blood returns to right atrium via venae cavae.
46
Name the major coronary arteries
47
Name the major cardiac veins
48
Name the structures of cardiac muscle
49
Label the structure of the cardiac muscle
50
what is the Intrinsic Conduction System?
-Coordinates the heartbeat: -Composed of an internal pacemaker and nerve-like conduction pathways through myocardium -Depolarization of the heart is rhythmic and spontaneous -About 1% of cardiac cells have automaticity (are self-excitable) -Gap junctions ensure the heart contracts as a unit
51
what are the steps of the intrinsic conduction system?
1. SA node fires. 2. Excitation spreads through atrial myocardium. 3. AV node fires. 4. Excitation spreads down AV bundle. 5. Subendocardial conducting network distributes excitation through ventricular myocardium.
52
what is the extrinsinc regulation of the heart
-The vagus nerve (parasympathetic) decreases heart rate -Sympathetic cardiac nerves increase heart rate and force of contraction
53
54
what is Electrocardiogram?
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) the action potentials generated by nodal and contractile cells detected, amplified and recorded by electrodes on arms, legs, and chest
55
what are the waves in ecg?
P wave: depolarization of SA node QRS complex: ventricular depolarization T wave: ventricular repolarization
56
what does a normal ecg look like?
57
what is the process of an ecg?
1. atria begins depolarizing 2. atrial depolarization complete 3. ventricular depolarization begins at apex and progresses superiorly as atria repolarize 4. ventricular depolarization complete 5. ventricular repolarization begins at apex and progresses superiorly 6. ventricular repolarization complete, heart is ready for the next cycle
58
what is a cardiac cycle?
one complete contraction and relaxation of all four chambers of the heart
59
what are the cycles of events in the heart?
Systole: contraction Diastole: relaxation Although “systole” and “diastole” can refer to contraction and relaxation of either type of chamber, they usually refer to the action of the ventricles
60
what is the operation of the heart valves?
1. atrioventricular valves open 2. atrioventricular valves closed 3. semilunar valves open 4. semilunar valves closed
61
what does the cardiac cycle look like?
62
what is cardiac output?
Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute
63
what is the equation for cardiac output?
CO = heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV) HR = number of beats per minute SV = volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each beat CO sometimes also called Q
64
Examples of cardiac output
65
what is tachycardia?
Tachycardia — resting adult heart rate above 100 bpm Stress, anxiety, drugs, heart disease, or fever Loss of blood or damage to myocardium
66
what is bradycardia?
Bradycardia — resting adult heart rate of less than 60 bpm In sleep, low body temperature, and endurance-trained athletes
67
what do chronotropic agents go?
Positive chronotropic agents — factors that raise the heart rate Negative chronotropic agents — factors that lower the heart rate
68
what is stroke volume?
Volume of blood ejected from each ventricle per beat.
69
what is end diastolic volume?
EDV: End Diastolic Volume Volume of blood in ventricle at the end of ventricular relaxation
70
what is end systolic volume?
ESV: End Systolic Volume Volume of blood in ventricle at the end of ventricular contraction
71
what is the equation for stroke volume?
SV = EDV – ESV
72
what are the main factors that affect SV?
1. Preload 2. contractility 3. afterload
73
how does preload affect SV?
The amount of tension in ventricular myocardium immediately before it begins to contract Frank-Starling law of the heart: SV proportional to EDV Ventricles eject almost as much blood as they receive (output = input) Increased preload = increased SV Increased venous return = increased EDV = increased SV
74
how does contractility affect SV?
how hard the myocardium contracts for a given preload independent of muscle stretch and EDV Impacts ESV Increased contractility = increased SV Positive inotropic agents increase contractility Hypercalcemia can cause strong, prolonged contractions and even cardiac arrest in systole Catecholamines increase calcium levels Negative inotropic agents reduce contractility Hypocalcemia can cause weak, irregular heartbeat and cardiac arrest in diastole Hyperkalemia reduces strength of myocardial action potentials and the release of 〖𝐶𝑎〗^(2+) into the sarcoplasm
75
how does afterload affect SV?
Sum of all forces opposing ejection of blood from ventricle Pressure that must be overcome for ventricles to eject blood Impacts ESV Hypertension increases afterload, resulting in increased ESV and reduced SV Increased afterload = decreased SV

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