Deck 3 Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
What is learning in psychology?
A
Learning is a lasting change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.
2
Q
How is learning different from instincts and reflexes?
A
Learning requires experience and change, while instincts and reflexes are innate and do not require learning.
3
Q
What part of the brain controls most reflexes?
A
The spinal cord and brainstem.
4
Q
What is a reflex?
A
A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response to a specific stimulus.
5
Q
What is an instinct?
A
An instinct is an inherited, species-specific behavior that increases survival chances.
6
Q
What are the two main types of learning?
A
Associative and non-associative learning.
7
Q
What is habituation?
A
Decreased response to a repeated, benign stimulus over time.
8
Q
What is sensitization?
A
Increased response to a repeated, intense stimulus.
9
Q
Who discovered classical conditioning?
A
Ivan Pavlov.
10
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food causing salivation).
11
Q
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
A
An automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus (e.g., salivating at food).
12
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A
A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response.
13
Q
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
14
Q
What is second-order conditioning?
A
When a new neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS.
15
Q
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
A
The phase where the NS is paired with the US and becomes a CS.
16
Q
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
A
The weakening of a CR when the CS is presented without the US.
17
Q
What is spontaneous recovery?
A
The reappearance of a CR after a rest period following extinction.
18
Q
What is stimulus generalization?
A
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the original CS.
19
Q
What is stimulus discrimination?
A
The ability to distinguish between the CS and other irrelevant stimuli.
20
Q
What is the principle of preparedness in learning?
A
Some associations are learned more easily due to evolutionary predispositions.
21
Q
What is the Rescorla-Wagner model?
A
A model suggesting learning occurs when the US is unexpected; it involves CS-US association strength.
22
Q
What is blocking in classical conditioning?
A
When a second CS fails to be learned because the first CS already predicts the US effectively.
23
Q
How is addiction explained using classical conditioning?
A
Environmental cues become CS that trigger drug cravings (CR) after being paired with drug use (US).
24
Q
What is the effect of conditioning on immune responses?
A
Stimuli like flavored drinks paired with immunosuppressants can cause conditioned suppression of the immune system.
25
Who developed the law of effect?
Edward Thorndike.
26
What does the law of effect state?
Behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated; unpleasant ones are not.
27
What is operant conditioning?
A learning process where behavior is influenced by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).
28
What is positive reinforcement?
Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
29
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
30
What is shaping in behaviorism?
Reinforcing successive approximations to guide behavior toward a desired outcome.
31
What is a major challenge in defining "emotion"?
There is no universally accepted definition; emotions are seen as consequences of events that motivate behavior.
32
How does the APA define emotion?
As a complex reaction pattern involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements to deal with significant events.
33
What are the four core components of emotion?
Cognitive, physiological, behavioral, and subjective.
34
What does Damasio's theory say about emotions?
Emotions are neurochemical interactions helping organisms respond to advantageous or disadvantageous situations.
35
According to Rolls, what triggers emotions?
Rewards and punishers, including changes in reward and punishment.
36
What are the seven basic emotions identified by Ekman?
Joy, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, contempt, and surprise.
37
What is the difference between emotions and moods?
Emotions are short-term, intense reactions; moods are longer-lasting and less intense.
38
What is the role of the limbic system in emotion?
It processes emotions and includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
39
What is the function of the amygdala?
It detects emotionally salient stimuli and plays a key role in fear and threat processing.
40
What role does the prefrontal cortex play in emotion?
It regulates emotions and contributes to decision-making and impulse control.
41
What is the autonomic nervous system's role in emotion?
It regulates physiological responses to emotional stimuli (e.g., heart rate, respiration).
42
What is Lazarus' appraisal theory?
Emotions result from a person’s evaluation of how an event affects their well-being.
43
What is emotional reappraisal?
Changing one’s interpretation of a situation to alter its emotional impact.
44
What is the semantic network theory?
Emotions are nodes in memory associated with related thoughts and behaviors.
45
What is mood-congruent memory?
We remember information better if it matches our current emotional state.
46
How does emotion influence decision-making?
It biases judgment and choices, as seen in cases like Phineas Gage.
47
What are the effects of positive emotions on health?
They boost resilience, creativity, and overall well-being.
48
What are two types of emotion regulation strategies?
Cognitive (e.g., reappraisal) and behavioral (e.g., distraction).
49
What is psychological resilience?
The ability to adapt and recover from stress and adversity.
50
How does extraversion relate to emotional experience?
Extroverts typically experience more positive emotions due to higher stimulation needs.
51
What emotional pattern is common in infants?
Crying as an innate expressive behavior regulated through caregiver support.
52
How do toddlers express anger?
Verbally and through physical actions like hitting or pushing.
53
At what age do infants show social smiles?
Around 6 to 10 weeks.
54
What emotional change occurs at age 2?
Children begin to understand consequences and experience joy from making others laugh.
55
What is the purpose of fear in emotional development?
To trigger avoidance and protective behavior in threatening situations.
56
What is the significance of secure attachment in early childhood?
It fosters emotional regulation and future mental and physical health.
57
What does Bowlby’s attachment theory state?
Children develop attachment to ensure closeness and security from caregivers.
58
What is affective forecasting?
Predicting how future events will make us feel.
59
What are top-down emotional processes?
Emotion processing influenced by cognition, past experiences, and expectations.
60
What are bottom-up emotional processes?
Emotion processing driven by raw sensory input and automatic responses.
61
What is motivation in psychology?
Motivation is the process that drives, initiates, and sustains goal-directed behaviors.
62
What are the two main types of motivation?
Intrinsic (from within) and extrinsic (from external rewards or pressure).
63
What characterizes intrinsic motivation?
It is driven by internal satisfaction and enjoyment of the activity itself.
64
What characterizes extrinsic motivation?
It is driven by outcomes like rewards, recognition, or avoiding punishment.
65
What are the three mechanisms that support motivation?
Activation, persistence, and intensity.
66
What is activation in motivation?
The decision to begin a behavior or task.
67
What is persistence in motivation?
The continued effort to achieve a goal despite obstacles.
68
What is intensity in motivation?
The concentration and energy invested in pursuing a goal.
69
What is meant by "motivation as a strength"?
Motivation depends on the interaction between capacity and opportunity, influencing performance and flow.
70
What is flow?
A mental state of deep focus and immersion in an activity, where skills match the challenge.
71
What conditions facilitate flow?
Clear goals, immediate feedback, focused attention, and balance between challenge and skill.
72
What does "motivation as a conscious calculation" refer to?
The idea that people make decisions about behavior based on expectations, values, and outcomes.
73
Who developed the Theory of Achievement Motivation?
John Atkinson.
74
What are the three key factors in Atkinson’s theory?
Motives, expectations (probability of success), and incentive value of the task.
75
What is incentive value in motivation?
The perceived attractiveness or benefit of the goal.
76
What is Weiner’s Attribution Theory?
It explains how individuals attribute causes to successes or failures and how these attributions influence motivation.
77
What dimensions are used in attribution theory?
Locus (internal/external), stability (stable/unstable), and controllability.
78
What is the difference between implicit and explicit motives?
Implicit motives are unconscious and emotion-driven, while explicit motives are conscious and goal-driven.
79
How are implicit motives measured?
Indirectly, through tools like picture story exercises.
80
How are explicit motives measured?
Directly, using questionnaires and self-report tools.
81
What are biogenic motives?
Motivations related to basic biological needs like hunger and thirst.
82
What are sociogenic motives?
Motivations influenced by social and cultural expectations.
83
What is Goal Setting Theory?
A theory by Locke and Latham stating that specific, challenging goals with feedback improve motivation and performance.
84
What are SMART goals?
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-bound goals.
85
What is the Rubicon Model of Action Phases?
A model dividing motivation into four phases: pre-decision, post-decision, action, and evaluation.
86
What is Social Cognitive Theory?
A theory by Bandura emphasizing learning through observation, self-efficacy, and reciprocal causation.
87
What is self-efficacy?
One’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.
88
What is reciprocal causation?
The interaction between behavior, personal factors, and the environment.
89
What is self-regulation in motivation?
The process of controlling one's own behavior through planning, monitoring, and reflection.
90
How can teachers foster motivation in students?
By providing models, building self-efficacy, and encouraging goal-setting and reflection.
91
What is attention in psychology?
The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
92
Who introduced the cocktail party effect?
Colin Cherry (1953), describing the ability to focus on one voice in a noisy environment.
93
What is the action control function of attention?
It refers to the selective planning of actions based on attention, essential for coherent perception and behavior.
94
What is tonic alertness?
A sustained state of general awareness and responsiveness that fluctuates throughout the day.
95
What is phasic alertness?
A temporary increase in responsiveness due to a warning signal (e.g., sirens, lights).
96
What is vigilance in attention?
The ability to maintain focused attention over prolonged periods, anticipating rare signals.
97
What is divided attention?
The cognitive process of attending to multiple stimuli or tasks at the same time.
98
What is the dichotic listening task?
A task where different auditory messages are played in each ear and participants focus on one.
99
What is shadowing in attention studies?
Repeating one auditory message while ignoring another in a dichotic listening task.
100
What did Jäncke et al. (2003) find in their study?
Dichotic listening activated key auditory brain regions, even in simple tasks.
101
What is Broadbent's Filter Theory?
A "bottleneck" theory where only selected stimuli pass through a filter into consciousness.
102
What is Treisman's Attenuation Model?
A model where irrelevant stimuli are weakened (not eliminated), allowing partial processing.
103
What is the Stroop effect?
A delay in reaction time when color names are printed in incongruent ink colors, testing selective attention.
104
What is inattentional blindness?
Failure to notice visible but unexpected objects when attention is engaged elsewhere.
105
What did Simons and Chabris (1999) discover?
46% of participants missed a visual anomaly due to divided attention during a video task.
106
What is Posner’s spatial cueing paradigm?
A method showing how spatial attention shifts can speed up stimulus detection.
107
What are the three mechanisms in Posner’s theory?
Move, disengage, and engage mechanisms for shifting spatial attention.
108
What is the Eriksen flanker task?
A test of selective attention using congruent, incongruent, and neutral stimuli flanking a target.
109
What is object-based attention theory?
Suggests attention is limited by the number of objects, not just spatial locations.
110
What is visual neglect syndrome?
A neurological condition where individuals ignore one half of their visual field.
111
What are the limitations of attention?
Limited capacity to process multiple stimuli; multitasking reduces performance and awareness.
112
What is consciousness in psychology?
Awareness of thoughts, feelings, and surroundings at a given moment.
113
What is the global workspace theory?
A theory suggesting consciousness arises from widespread neural activity.
114
What is the global neuronal workspace model?
Proposes conscious awareness stems from synchronized activity across brain regions like the prefrontal cortex.
115
What is Lamme’s theory of recurrent processing?
Consciousness arises from deep, ongoing processing loops across the brain.
116
What are top-down processes?
Perception guided by experiences, expectations, and cognitive context.
117
What are bottom-up processes?
Perception driven directly by sensory input without prior knowledge or expectation.
118
What is priming?
An unconscious influence where prior exposure to a stimulus affects response to another.
119
What is semantic priming?
When a stimulus (like the word "doctor") speeds up response to a related word (like "nurse").
120
What is response priming?
When a priming stimulus influences the speed or accuracy of a response to a later target.
