Definition Flashcards
1
Q
Endocrine system
A
Cooperate with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis by regulating body activities. This is accomplished by endocrine hormones that affect various processes throughout the body, such as growth, metabolism, and secretions from other organs.
Is composed of the ductless glands, and other structures that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
The endocrine system, and the nervous system cooperate to maintain homeostasis.
2
Q
Endocrine glands
A
Are ductless glands, which secrete hormones, special chemical substances, into the blood that are carried to another part of the body, where they exert specific physiologic effects.
endocrine glands (for example, the thyroid and pituitary glands) are ductless, so they secrete their hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine glands are ductless and produce and secrete hormones into the blood or lymph nodes.
Respond to hormones produced by the pituitary gland, it is named the “master gland.”
3
Q
Hormones
A
The chemical secretions of endocrine glands.
Special chemical substance
Hormones are either proteins or steroids. Most hormones in the human body are proteins with the exception of the sex hormones, and those from the adrenal cortex, which are steroids, (a special group of lipids.)
Chemical substances produced in an organ that initiate or regulate the activity of another organ are called hormones
4
Q
Gland
A
Is an organ that has specialized cells that secrete or excrete substances that are not related to the glands ordinary metabolism.
Glands are classified as either exocrine or endocrine glands.
5
Q
Exocrine glands
A
Have ducts that enable them to empty secretions onto an external or an internal body surface.
A sweet gland is an example of an exocrine gland.
Exocrine gland has duct
Exocrine glands, such as sweat glands, are simple glands that have adapt that enables them to empty secretions onto a body surface
6
Q
Dysfunctions in hormone production
A
Fall into two categories:
Either a deficiency or an excess in secretion
Deficiency is called hyposecretion
Excess secretion is called hypersecretion
7
Q
Target organ
A
The organ or structure toward which the effects of a hormone are primarily directed, is called__________.
If a hormone has a specific affect on the thyroid gland, then the thyroid is the target organ.
If a hormone has a specific affect on the ovaries than the ovaries is the target.
8
Q
The target cell concept
A
Explains how only certain cells of specific organs are affected by a specific hormone.
The hormone recognizes the target tissue through receptors (the site that interacts with the hormone ), so the hormones act only on cells that have receptors specific for that hormone. The shape of the receptor determines which hormone can react with it.
9
Q
Parathyroid
A
Each parathyroid gland, embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid, is about the size of a grain of rice.
10
Q
Thyroid gland
A
Located at the front of the neck, its hormones are essential to normal body growth in infancy and childhood
Regulates the parathyroid glands by negative feedback
Parathyroid glands,m secrete parathyroid hormone PTH or parathormone (para, is used here to mean near or beside). PTH increases the blood calcium level, and its production and release is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
11
Q
Steroids
Is a hormone
A
A special group of lipids
Sex hormones, and other steroids can be taken orally
12
Q
Proteins
Is a hormone
A
Proteins are quickly in activated in the digestive tract, so, if there is a deficiency, these hormones are administered by injection.
13
Q
7 Major glands of the endocrine system
A
Pituitary gland, adrenal gland, gonads, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid gland, pancreas
14
Q
Pituitary gland or hypophysis
The master gland
Also called pituitary, hypophysis cerebri, or simply hypophysis, or nickname “the master gland”
The master gland of the endocrine system, and is located at the base of the brain.
A
A small, round structure, about 1 cm (or half inch) in diameter that is attached by a stalk at the base of the brain; also called hypophysis.
The anterior pituitary is composed of glandular tissue
The posterior pituitary is composed of nervous tissue
Supplies hormones that act directly on cells or stimulate other glands that govern numerous vital processes.
15
Q
Adrenal glands or suprarenal glands
A
One lies above each other of the two kidneys; also called the suprarenal glands.
Releases adrenaline in response to the sympathetic nervous system in stressful situations
16
Q
Gonads
A
Ovaries and testes: glands that provide ova and sperm, respectively
17
Q
Pineal gland
A
Shaped like a pinecone and is attached to the posterior part of the brain; also called the pineal body
18
Q
Thyroid
A
Consist of bilateral lobes that are connected by a narrow strip of thyroid tissue and located at the front of the neck; also called the thyroid gland.
19
Q
Parathyroid glands
A
Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid; the name implies that they are located “near or beside” the thyroid
20
Q
Pancreas
A
An elongated structure that has digestive functions as well as endocrine functions; the islets of Langerhans are microscopic cluster of cells responsible for the endocrine work of the pancreas.
21
Q
Hypo/physis
Hypophysis
A
Was so named because it grows under (beneath) the cerebrum
22
Q
Posterior pituitary lobe
Posterior lobe of the pituitary
A
Is controlled by nervous stimulation by the hypothalamus and releases two hormones.
Is called the neurohypophysis
The hormones of the neurohypophysis are stored in the axon endings and are released when a nerve impulse travels down the axon.
23
Q
Anterior pituitary lobe
A
Is controlled by hypothalamic, hormones brought by the bloodstream and secretes many hormones
24
Q
hypothalamus
A
This lobe contains ends of neurons, the cell bodies of which are located in the hypothalamus, a portion of the lower part of the brain.
Regulates the adenohypophysis, the anterior lobe, by replacing regulatory and inhibitory hormones.
25
Anterior lobe of the pituitary
Releases the greater number of hormones.
Is called adenohypophysis. This lobe is the glandular part of it the hypophysis. The release of the hormones from the adenohypophysis is controlled by regulating hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
Produces many hormones, several of which act on other endocrine glands, causing them also to secrete hormones.
26
Pituitary hormones
ADH : antidiuretic hormone
STH : somatotropic hormone
MSH : melanocyte-stimulating hormone
27
The breasts
The uterus
The two hormones produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary act directly on the specific cells of the kidneys
28
Adenohypophysis
Is controlled by hormones brought by the bloodstream
Releases several hormones that regulate a large range of body activities.
29
neurohypophysis
Is controlled by nervous stimulation
30
Luteinizing hormone LH
In males is also called interstitial cell— stimulating hormone ICSH (interstitial in the name, refers to certain cells of the testes)
31
Endocrine tissue
Additional endocrine tissue is located in various body cells, the gastrointestinal tract, placenta, kidney, and the skin.
32
ADH and oxytin
These are the names or abbreviations of the two hormones that are stored in the neurohypophysis and released into the bloodstream after nervous stimulation by the hypothalamus.
33
STH
MSH
TSH
PRL
LH
FSH
ACTH
The abbreviations of the seven horror moans of the adenohypophysis
34
Hypothalamus
Controls the neurohypophysis, the posterior lobe, by direct, nervous stimulation
Synthesizes to hormones that are stored in the neurohypophysis. Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the neurohypophysis for storage. On stimulation by the hypothalamus, the neurohypophysis releases them into the bloodstream.
35
Antidiuretic hormone, ADH
Affects the volume of urine excreted.
Disorders of the posterior lobe of the pituitary are usually related to a deficiency or excess of ADH, which is the antidiuretic hormone.
pituitary dysfunction can result in hyposecretion or hypersecretion of the pituitary hormones.
36
Diuretic
Means increasing urine excretion or the amount of urine. It also means an agent that promotes a urine excretion.
Some common caffeinated drinks, (tea, coffee, soda) and even water can act as diuretics. Physicians also prescribe diuretic drugs to rid the body of excess fluid in patients with edema.
Diuretics increase urination.
Diuretic=more urination
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
=less urine excretion
Absence of ADH
= much urine excretion
37
Antidiuretic
Pertaining to the suppression of urine excretion
Hormone acts against a diuretic. it acts in the kidneys to reabsorb water from the urine, producing concentrated urine.
Absence of this hormone produces diuresis, passage of large amounts of dilute urine.
Antidiuretic hormone causes a decrease in the amount of water lost in urination.
38
Oxytocin
Is a pituitary hormone that stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection
The pituitary hormone, oxytocin, is released in large quantities just before a female gives birth. It causes uterine contractions, thus inducing childbirth. It also acts on the mammary glands to stimulate the release of milk.
Oxytocin’s =Uterus: uterine contraction
before childbirth
functions =Mammary glands: expulsion
of milk after childbirth
39
Regulatory and inhibitory hormones stimulate, or inhibit the adenohypophysis
Hypothalamic regulatory and inhibitory hormones act on the adenohypophysis to either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of its hormones. When the adenohypophysis, secretes hormones, they travel through the bloodstream and bring about changes in other organs, often another endocrine gland. Note that the control from the hypothalamus to the adenohypophysis is hormonal, whereas the control of the neurohypophysis—as mentioned earlier— is through nervous stimulation.
40
Tropic
Stimulate
41
Pituitary secrete TSH
Which causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones
42
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone and is also called thyrotropin
43
Thyroid gland
The Glenn located at the front of the neck that is stimulated by TSH
The major functions of the thyroid gland are regulation of body metabolism, normal growth & development, and the storage of calcium in bone tissue. It accomplishes these functions by secretion of three hormones: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and thyrocalcitonin.
44
Eu/thyroid
Euthyroid
Normal functioning of the thyroid
Good or normal/thyroid
Means a normally functioning thyroid
45
Thyroxine abbreviated T4(small 4)
The majority of the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland is thyroxine, abbreviated T4, which is tetraiodothyronine, because the molecule contains four atoms of iodine in its chemical structure
46
triiodothyronine
Another hormone produced by the thyroid gland, but in far lower quantities is triiodothyronine which is abbreviated T3 (small3) . Both of these hormones are synthesized by the thyroid using iodine. If there is a deficiency of iodine in the diet, the thyroid will not be able to produce sufficient T3 and T4 for metabolism.
47
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT, also called calcitonin)
A third hormone produced by the thyroid gland is thyrocalcitonin. This hormone is involved in the homeostasis of the blood calcium level. TCT is a hormone produced by the thyroid.
48
Thyroid gland produces
T3=triiodothyronine
T4=tetraiodothyronine
Thyrocalcitonin
49
Two important pituitary hormones, have the gonads as target organs
Gonadotropic hormones, stimulate the ovaries of the female, and the testes of a male
Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH and luteinizing hormone. LH are produced by the adenohypophysis.
50
gonadotropin
FSH & LH are gonadotropin
A hormone that stimulates the gonads
51
gonad/al
gonadal
gonads/pertaining to
Means pertaining to the gonads
52
Gonadotropic
Is an adjective that means stimulating the gonads. The first gonadal, tropic hormone, FSH, stimulates the ovaries to secrete estrogen and acts on the follicle (as its name implies.) FSH stimulates production of sperm in the testes of males.
53
Luteinizing hormone, LH
LH is often called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone ICSH in male individuals, because it promotes the growth of the interstitial cells of the testes and the secretion of testosterone.
Stimulates, ovulation, and production of progesterone in the female ovary.
Ovaries
LH=Testes
Ovaries
FSH=(CSH) Testes
54
Puberty
The period of life at which reproduction becomes possible. It is recognized by maturation of the genitals and appearance of secondary sex characteristics. the onset of puberty is triggered by the hypothalamus and the arterial pituitary. FSH and LH act on the testes and ovaries.
55
Male sex hormones
Are collectively called androgens, and testosterone is the most abundant
56
Main hormones secreted by the ovaries and testes
Are estrogen and testosterone
57
Progesterone
Is another important female hormone produced mainly by the ovaries (and by the placenta during pregnancy) and in minute amounts by the adrenal cortex
58
Estrogen
Ovaries produce estrogen (largely responsible for female sexual characteristics) and progesterone (also produced by the placenta) which maintains pregnancy.
59
Secondary female and male sexual
The changes that occur at puberty are brought about by the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary. Changes in the secretions of FSH and LH bring about changes in the ovaries and testes and the hormones they produce.
60
Females at puberty
Starts at the pituitary gland ====
FSH and LH ===
ovum matures in ovary ===
production of estrogen and progesterone===
Sexual desire
Growth and distribution of body hair
Breast development
Feminine body features
Ovulation
Menstruation
61
Males at puberty
Pituitary gland===
FSH and ICSH ===
Sperm and testosterone production of testes
Sexual desire
Growth and distribution of body hair
Deepening of the voice
Masculine body features
Development of sex organs
Muscle building
62
Testosterone
Is an androgens
Is the most potent androgen and is produced in large quantities by the testes, making that produced by the adrenal glands significant in most cases
Testes produce testosterone, which is responsible for male sexual characteristics.
63
Androgenic
Means producing masculine characteristics or masculinization. In women, the masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident after menopause.
64
Growth hormone GH
Is also called somatotropic hormone STH or somatotropin.
65
Somato/tropic hormone
Somatotropic
body/stimulating
66
Somatotropin
Somato/tropin
This hormone increases the rate of growth and maintains size. Once growth is attained. It is called GH or somatotropin.
Is the hormone that which stimulates body growth
body/that which stimulates
67
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH
From the pituitary stimulates melanocytes distributed throughout the epidermidis. MSH promotes pigmentation and controls the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes.
68
Melanin
Implies the color black
-Is a black or dark brown pigment that occurs naturally in the hair, skin, and parts of the eye.
69
Melanocyte
Sell that produces melanin
70
Adrenal gland
Each adrenal gland has two parts, a cortex and a medulla, and each part has its own functions
The cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland are stimulated by different means, and they secrete different hormones.
The hypothalamus influences both portions, but the medulla receives, direct nervous stimulation. The cortex is stimulated by adrenocorticotropin, also called adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH, which is brought by the circulating blood.
71
Cortex
The outer cortex makes up the bulk of the gland,
Important hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids (main one is aldosterone)
Glucocorticoids main ones are cortisol and cortisone
Androgens, estrogens
72
Medulla
The inner portion of the gland
Important hormones produced by adrenal medulla
Epinephrine norepinephrine
73
Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens are secreted by the
Adrenal cortex
74
Mineralocorticoids, help maintain water balance in the body. As the name implies, glucocorticoids increase
Blood glucose, but they also inhibit inflammation.
75
Glucocorticoids
Increase blood glucose, but they also inhibit inflammation
76
Cortisone
Is used to relieve pain and inflammation in topical preparation’s and is also injected in the joints.
77
Androgens
Have masculinizing effects
78
Estrogens
Have feminine eyes in effects
79
Adrenal medulla, secretes two hormones
Is an example of direct, nervous stimulation.
epinephrine, which stimulates the heart, and norepinephrine , which causes construction of blood vessels
Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerves
80
epinephrine
Is also called adrenaline, which you have probably heard before, so this may help you remember that these two hormones are sometimes called the fight or flight or moans, because they prepare the body for strenuous activity
81
Prolactin PRL is also called lactogenic hormone
The most important hormone that stimulates milk production
Because it causes production of milk by the mammary glands. PRL has no known function in males.
82
Mammary glands
The milk producing glands of the female
Are lactiferous glands in the female breast that are the target organs of oxytocin and PRL. Many problems associated with the breast are not a result of hormones. However, hormones may be related to breast disorders, for example, inappropriate lactation (nipple discharge.)
The memory glands secrete, a cloud of fluid called colostrum during the first few days, after a female gives birth.
Changes in the memory glands, prepare the breast of a pregnant, female for lactogenesis, the production of milk
Are the two glands of the female breast that secrete milk. The female breasts are accessory organs of the reproductive system.
The breasts are located anterior to the chest muscles and each breast contains 15 to 20 lobes of the glandular tissue that radiate around the nipple.
83
Breasts
Are mammary glands and function as part of both the endocrine and reproductive systems
84
areola
The circular pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple
85
lobule
Means small lobe. The lobes are separated by connective and adipose (fatty) tissue.
86
adipose tissue
The amount of adipose tissue determines the size of the breasts but not the amount of milk that can be produced
87
Lactogenic
Means inducing the secretion of milk. lact(o) means milk
88
Lactogenesis
The production of milk
89
Colostrum
The mammary glands secrete a cloudy fluid called colostrum during the first few days after a female gives birth. Because of both high antibody and protein contact, colostrum serves adequately as food for the infant until milk production begins 2 to 3 days after birth.
90
Lactiferous duct
Each breast lobule is drained by its own lactiferous duct, which has a dilated portion called a sinus that serves as a reservoir for milk.
91
nipple
Located near the center of the breast, contains the opening for the milk ducts.
92
Lactation
Is the secretion or ejecting of milk. Milk ejection is a normal reflex in a lactating woman and is elicited by tactile stimulation of the nipple (such as nursing by the infant). impulses from the nipple to the hypothalamus stimulate the release of oxytocin by the pituitary gland, which brings about contractions that inject the milk from the breast. If a lactating mother stops nursing, milk production usually ceases within a few days.
93
Intermammary
Means situated between the breasts
94
Retromammary
Means behind the breast
95
Interrelationships of hypothalamus, neurohypophysis, and breast
Suckling by the infant stimulates nerve endings at the nipple. Impulses are carried to the hypothalamus, which causes the neurohypophysis to secrete oxytocin into the bloodstream. The oxytocin is carried to the breast, where it causes milk to be expressed into the ducts. Milk begins to flow within 30 seconds to 1 minute after a baby begins to suckle.
Suckling stimulus — release of oxytocin into bloodstream—hypophysis— perception by brain
96
Page 560
Major hormones, and target organs of the master gland (pituitary)
HORMONE
Neurohypophysis
Antidiuretic hormone ADH
Oxytocin
TARGET ORGAN OR A GLAND ACTION
kidney cells/conserve water
Uterus during pregnancy/uterine contractions; mammary glands of lactating female/release of milk
HORMONE
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
adrenocorticotropin ACTH
TARGET ORGAN OR GLAND ACTIONS
adrenal cortex (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens); see table 12.1 on page 558.
HORMONE
FOLLICLE, STIMULATING HORMONE FSH
Ovarian follicles (estrogen) ova; testes/sperm
LUTEINIZING HORMONE LH
Ovaries (progesterone); testes (testosterone)
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE MSH
melanocytes in epidermis; pigmentation
PROLACTIN PRL
mammary glands; production of milk
SOMATOTROPIN (GROWTH HORMONE GH)
body cells; growth or maintenance of size
THYROTROPIN
thyroid gland (triiodothyronine T3, thyroxine T4, and thyrocalcitonin TCT; body metabolism and growth
97
Pineal gland
That exact functions have not been established, but there is evidence that it secretes the hormone melatonin.
Pineal gland usually begins to diminish around the age of seven years. If degeneration does not occur, the production of melatonin remains high, and puberty may be delayed in girls. This indicates that melatonin may inhibit the activities of the ovaries.
98
Melatonin
Is secreted by the pineal gland. In addition to a regulatory function in sexual development, effects of melatonin may increase the sleepiness – wakefulness cycle and mood and may cause a decrease in skin pigmentation.
So named because its release is stimulated by darkness
99
Homeostasis
Stability of the internal environment of the body
Stability in the normal body state
Strict regulation of hormonal secretion is important to maintain homeostasis
100
Three different methods to regulate
1) direct nervous stimulation
2) secretion of hormones in response to other hormones
3) negative feedback mechanism
101
Tropic hormones
Cause secretion of other hormones. For example, thyrotropin TSH from the anterior pituitary gland causes the thyroid gland to secrete the thyroid hormones
102
Example of a negative feedback system
The interaction between two important pancreatic hormones and the concentration of glucose in the blood is an example
In negative feedback, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance that is it regulates.
Page 561
103
Two important hormones,
glucagon and insulin. Page561
The islets of Langerhans secrete two important hormones which regulate each other through negative feedback, (a decreased function in response to stimulus)
104
Carbohydrates
Page 561
Food contains carbohydrates, which are broken down into glucose for energy
After eating a meal that contains carbohydrates, hyperglycemia results.
Then the hormone insulin is secreted that promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose. As the level of glucose drops, glucagon is secreted to prevent blood sugar from dropping too low between meals, and the cycle begins again.
The action of insulin and glucagon are opposite or antagonistic to each other, one, causing the blood glucose to increase the other, causing it to decrease.
105
Glucose
The type of sugar found in blood
106
Elevated blood glucose levels
Stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas
107
Blood glucose levels decrease
As blood glucose levels decrease, the stimulus or insulin secretion also decreases
108
Hypoglycemia
An abnormally low concentration of glucose in the blood
Is a less than normal amount of glucose in the blood. It is caused by administration of too much insulin, excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas, or dietary deficiency. An individual with hypoglycemia usually experiences weakness, headache, hunger, visual disturbances, and anxiety. If untreated, hypoglycemia can lead to coma and death.
109
Hyperglycemia
And increase the amount of sugar in the blood
Is a greater than normal amount of glucose in the blood
Means a greater than normal level of glucose in the blood. Diabetics are urge to control. Blood glucose levels to significantly reduce complications of uncontrolled diabetes.
Causes serious fluid and electrolyte imbalances, ultimately resulting in the classic symptoms of diabetes: polyphagia, polyuria, and polydipsia.
110
Diabetes mellitus DM
Insufficient Insulin activity, and the resulting of hyperglycemia
Insufficient, secretion or resistance to insulin
DM is caused by a deficiency or a complete lack of insulin secretion or resistance to insulin by target cells
When used alone, the term diabetes generally refers to diabetes mellitus, but one should be aware that the term diabetes means excessive excretion of urine, and diabetes insipidus, for example, is so named because of its classic symptoms, not because of its relationship to DM.
Broad classifications of DM are type 1, type 2, gestational, and other types. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is genetically determined and results in absolute insulin deficiency. Individuals with this particular gene produce little or no insulin and are classified as having type 1 diabetes mellitus. This disease was previously called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus IDDM.
Is primarily a result of resistant to Insulin or a deficiency or complete lack of insulin secretion by the insulin producing cells of the pancreas. Without insulin, glucose builds up in the blood and hyperglycemia results.
111
Parathyroid gland
(Any of four small structures attached to the dorsal surface of the thyroid)
Is an endocrine gland that is not directly controlled by the pituitary but is closely linked with the thyroid gland.
112
Negative feedback of PTH (parathyroid hormone)
Means that it is secreted in response to low levels of calcium in the blood
PTH has the opposite effect, or is antagonistic, to calcitonin secreted by the thyroid gland.
TO RECAP:
parathyroid glands — parathyroid hormone PTH— ^blood calcium
113
Gastrin
Enzyme pepsin
Are used in the digestion of food
The lining of the stomach produces gastrin, which stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid, and the enzyme pepsin, each being a substance that is used in the digestion of food. The hormone gastrin is secreted in response to food in the stomach. Hormones secreted by the lining of the small intestine stimulate the pancreas and the gallbladder to produce substances that aid in digestion.
114
Thymus
Is located near the middle of the chest cavity behind the breastbone. It produces thymosin, which assist in the development of lymphocytes, blood cells that function in immunity. The thymus, usually largest at puberty, diminishes an size as an individual reaches adulthood
This lymphatic organ reaches its maximum size at puberty. It plays an important role in the body’s development of an effective immune system.
115
thymosin
The hormone produced by the thymus
116
atriopeptin
Special cells in the atria, the upper chambers of the heart produce a hormone, atriopeptin, which increases the loss of sodium and water in urine.
117
human chorionic gonadotropin HCG
Is the hormone that maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy, hCG is produced by the placenta
The placenta of a pregnant female produces human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, and progesterone, which function to maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy.
118
prostaglandins
Potent chemical regulators that have many effects throughout the body, including many aspects of fever and pain, as well as the symptoms of severe menstrual cramps.
Potent chemical regulators are hormonelike substances that have a localized, immediate, and short term effect on or near the cells where they are produced.
The cells of most tissues throughout the body can produce prostaglandins when stimulated, particularly by injury.
Some of the effects include smooth, muscle contraction, involvement in blood, clotting, and many aspects of fever and pain.
They are believed to be implicated in the symptoms of severe menstrual cramps, premenstrual syndrome, and premature labor.
119
Major endocrine glands and their secretions
Page 563
120
Pineal gland
Attached between two lobes of the thalamus, it is believed to produce melatonin, which is used to treat insomnia and Jetlag.
121
Pituitary gland secretes
Anterior lobe
Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH
Antidiuretic hormone ADH
Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH
Growth hormone GH
Luteinizing hormone LH
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH
Oxytocin
Thyrotropin TSH
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone ICSH
Prolactin PRL
122
Adrenal gland secretes
Cortex
medulla
Aldosterone
cortisol
androgens
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
123
Gonads and ovaries secretes
Testes
Estrogen
Progesterone
Human chorionic gonadotropin HCG
testosterone
124
Pancreas (islets of Langerhans)secretes
Insulin
Glucagon
125
Parathyroid glands secretes
Parathormone PTH
126
Thyroid gland secretes
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyrocalcitonin
Calcitonin
127
Pineal gland secretes
Melatonin
Serotonin
128
Thymus secrete
Thymosin
129
Endocrine dysfunction
Unexplained weight change
Unusual distribution of body hair
Excessive thirst
Excessive urination
Laboratory findings
While most endocrine glands are not assessable from manual examination, the thyroid gland and the male Gonads are exceptions.
Patient’s neck can be observed for any unusual bulging over the thyroid area, and the gland can be palpated.
Likewise, the testicles are examined, visually for a difference in size in our palpated for masses.
130
Palpation
Examination with the hands or fingers
The method of using the hands or fingers to examine an organ
131
Physical indications of Endo, crying dysfunctions include
Unusually tall or short stature
Coarsening or facial features
Edema (accumulation of fluid in the interstitial tissues)
Hair loss
Excessive facial hair in females
132
Hyperthyroidism
Is abnormally increased activity of the thyroid?
A classic finding associated with hyperthyroidism is exophthalmos — that is, protrusion (bulging outward) of the eyeballs
Excessive secretion of two hormones of the thyroid gland, resulting in increased metabolic rate; the patient becomes excitable and nervous, exhibiting moist skin, rapid pulse, increased metabolic activity, weight loss, and exophthalmos, marked protrusion of the eyeballs (see Fig. 12.15, B); the most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, which is believed to be an autoimmune
disease. A life-threatening form of Graves disease is thyroid storm, also called thyrotoxicosis.
133
exophthalmos
Protrusion of the eyeballs (bulging outward)
134
Goiter
An enlarged thyroid gland that is usually evident as a pronounced swelling in the neck.
Signs and symptoms include nervousness, fatigue, constant, hunger, weight, loss, heat, intolerance, and palpitations (pounding or racing of the heart)
135
Gonadotropin
Are FSH and luteinizing hormone
FSH— follicle stimulating hormone
136
Radioimmunoassay studies RIA
Are nuclear medicine tests, which use radioactive chemicals and antibodies to detect minute concentrations of a substance in the blood
137
Thyroid function
There are a number of blood tests and radiologic tests to determine thyroid function.
Blood studies include testing for TSH, T4, and T3. (T3 and T4 are sometimes collectively called thyroid hormone.)
138
Radioactive iodine, 131I
like all radionuclides (radioisotopes), gives off radiation
139
Radioactive iodine uptake test RAIU
Test of thyroids ability to trap and retain iodine
Measures the ability of the thyroid gland to trap or retain the 131I after oral ingestion. A radiation counter determines the amount of 131I uptake by the thyroid gland.
If he left the normal quantity of radioactive iodine is absorbed by the thyroid gland, the condition would be hypothyroidism.
140
Parathyroid gland
Measurement of the levels of PTH, calcium, and phosphate in the blood, helps to determine the functioning of the parathyroid gland
141
Hypothyroidism
Is abnormally decreased activity of the thyroid
Decreased activity of the thyroid gland; in childhood, results in cretinism, characterized by arrested physical and mental development
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Cretinism. This 33-year-old untreated adult cretin exhibits characteristic features. She is only 44 inches tall, and has underdeveloped breasts, protruding abdomen, umbilical hernia, widened facial features, and scant axillary and pubic hair.
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Measured in the blood and urine
Several hormones secreted by the adrenal glands can be measured in the blood and urine, as can the level of ACTH in the blood. Computed tomography, sometimes using contrast agents, can be used to detect tumors of the adrenal gland.
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Blood test to study pancreatic function
Include fasting blood sugar FBS, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and oral glucose tolerance tests (GTTs). The FBS measures the glucose level in circulating blood. Hyperglycemia is a greater than normal amount of glucose in the blood and hypoglycemia is a less than normal amount of blood glucose.
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Hypoglycemia
Is a less than normal amount of blood glucose
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Glucose tolerance test, GTT
Is a test of the body’s ability to use carbohydrates by giving a standard dose of glucose to the patient and measuring the blood in the urine for glucose levels at regular intervals.
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Hb A1c
Level provides a more accurate reflection of uncontrolled diabetes than a FBS (fasting blood sugar)
Test of hemoglobin attached to a glucose molecule
Rather than only measuring the concentration of FBS on the particular day of testing, results of the Hb A1c represent the average blood glucose levels over the previous three or four months. In controlled DM, the Hb A1c concentration is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases, the levels maybe three or four times the normal.
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Testing for glucose and ketones
Urine studies to evaluate pancreatic function, including testing for glucose and ketones. Neither glucose nor Keytone levels are detectable in normal urine specimens.
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Glucosuria
Means the presence of sugar, especially glucose, in the urine
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Ketones
Are products of abnormal use of fat in the body (as in diabetes).
Excessive production of key tones leads to their excretion in the urine.
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ketonuria
Means the presence of ketones in the urine
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Diagnose of pancreatic disorders
Radiologic testing to identify pancreatic tumors or cysts usually includes computed tomography, with or without a contrast medium or an ultrasound is also used.
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Breast cancer
May look like a rash of the nipple. A woman often may assume that a rash is a skin infection or allergy.
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Mammography
Radiographic examination of the breast
Is a diagnostic procedure that uses x-rays to study the soft tissues of the breast. It is used as a screening test to detect various benign conditions and malignant tumors of the breast. The radiographic image produced in mammography is called a mammogram.
Sonography is also used in the diagnosis of breast disorders; it can distinguish cystic from solid growths.
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Breast biopsy techniques
Needle biopsy and aspiration are used if fluid is present.
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Digital breast tomosynthesis DBT
Using multiple images of the entire breast, is in advance type of three-dimensional mammogram that can offer earlier and more accurate cancer detection.
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Needle aspiration
Needle biopsy
Is the removal of fluid and tissue from the breast mass through a large-bore needle.
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Incisional biopsy
Is the surgical removal of tissue from the breast mass
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Excisional biopsy
Remove the mass itself.
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FBS
Fasting blood sugar
a blood test to study pancreatic function
Blood test of fasting glucose level
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Glycosuria
Presence of sugar in the urine
Presence of glucose in the urine
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Adenopathy
Any disease of a gland
Sometimes used to mean any disease of the lymph nodes
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Dysfunction of the endocrine system
Too little or too much of a specific hormone leads to
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Steroid hormone
Bodybuilders sometimes take steroid hormones to achieve, muscular definition, which can lead to Endo crying disorders. Physicians can order tests of steroids when they see over development of muscles in a patient and suspect abuse.
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Adenoma
Is tumor of a gland
Is a benign tumor in which the cells are clearly derived from glandular tissue
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Adenocarcinoma
Means any of a large group of malignant tumors of the glands
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Hyper/pituitar/ism
Hyperpituitarism
Greater than normal/pituitary/condition
Increased activity of the pituitary gland; a common cause is the presence of the benign tumor, especially a pituitary adenoma; over production or under production of GH during childhood leads to gigantism, characterized by excessive stature, or dwarfism, extreme shortness, and often other defects.
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Hypopituitarism
Hypo/pituitar/ism
Below normal/pituitary/condition
Decreased activity of the pituitary gland; deficiency of one or more anterior pituitary hormones
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Poly/dipsia
Polydipsia
Many/thirst
Excessive thirst
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Poly/uria
Polyuria
Many/urination
Excessive urination
Increased urination
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1) Gigantism
2) Dwarfism
Resulting from abnormal secretions of growth hormone GH
1) abnormal growth due to an excess of with hormone (GH) during childhood
Characterized by excessive stature. Hyper secretion of GH during the early years result in gigantism.
Hypersecretion of Somatotropin during childhood
2) extreme, shortness, and often other defects. Hyposecretion of GH during the early years produces a door unless the child is treated with injections of GH. Kewpie doll appearance, suggesting a deficiency of GH
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Disorders of the posterior lobe of the pituitary
1) diabetes insipidus: a disorder associated with a deficiency of ADH, or inability of the kidneys to respond to ADH, polyuria and polydipsia; do not confuse with DM, the well-known type of diabetes that is associated with insufficient or improper use of insulin by the body.
2) syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion: excessive release of ADH, that usually develops in association with other diseases; abbreviation is SIADH
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Anti-pituitary disorders and their associated hormones
Abnormal growth—somatotropin
Metabolism—PRL, STH, ACTH, & MSH
Sexual development—FSH & LH
Untreated endocrine dysfunctions during childhood generally have longer lasting and greater effects than those that occur after puberty. Because of better knowledge and improved testing, many endocrine dysfunctions in children are treated, and long lasting effects are avoided.
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Disorders of the anterior lobe of the pituitary include the following
1) Acromegaly: caused by hypersecretion of growth hormone after maturity. Abnormal enlargement of the extremities of the skeleton.
hypersecretion of GH in adults, oversecretion of GH in adults, characterized by thickening of the bones of the feet, hands, cheeks, and jaws; may also involve other pituitary hormones.
2) Goiter: a descriptive term that means an enlarged thyroid gland, evident as a pronounced swelling in the neck.
3) Hyperthyroidism: excessive secretion of two hormones of the thyroid gland, resulting in increased metabolic rate; the patient becomes excitable and nervous, exhibiting moist skin, rapid pulse, increased metabolic activity, weight loss, and exophthalmos, marked protrusion on the eyeballs; the most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, which is believed to be an autoimmune disease. A life-threatening form of Graves disease is thyroid storm, also called thyrotoxicosis.
4) Hypothyroidism: Decreased activity of the thyroid gland; in childhood, results in cretinism, characterized by arrested physical and mental development (Fig. 12.21) PG 568
5) Myxedema: it’s a condition resulting from hypothyroidism, characterized by dry, waxy, swelling of the skin.
Severe form of adult hypothyroidism (defciency of T4 and T3) with severe swelling, especially facial puffiness
Hyposecretion of T4 and T3 during adulthood
6) Pituitary Cachexia: A state of ill health, malnutrition, and wasting, caused by hyposecretion of the pituitary gland in adults
7) Thyropathy: Any disease of the thyroid gland; thyroid diseases include inflammation (thyroiditis) or enlargement of the thyroid and hypersecretion or hyposecretion of thyroid hormones.
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Cretinism or hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism decreased activity of the thyroid glands in childhood,
Characterized by arrested physical, and mental development.
Cretinism. This 33-year-old untreated adult cretin exhibits characteristic features. She is only 44 inches tall, and has underdeveloped breasts, protruding abdomen, umbilical hernia, widened facial features, and scant axillary and pubic hair.
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Hyper/parathyroid/ism
Hyperparathyroidism
Greater than normal/parathyroid/condition
Increased secretion of the parathyroids, which causes hypercalcemia, greater than normal concentration of calcium in the blood
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Hypo/parathyroid/ism
Hypoparathyroidism
Below normal/para thyroid/condition
Insufficient secretion of the parathyroids, which causes hypocalcemia, less than normal concentration of calcium in the blood
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Pituitar/y hypo/gonad/ism
Pituitary hypogonadism
Pituitary/condition/below normal/gonad/condition
Decreased secretion of FSH or LH by the pituitary gland
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Hypo/gonad/ism
Hypogonadism
Below normal/gonad/condition
Decreased functional activity of the gonads; results in a deficiency of the hormones, produced by the affected organs, (ovaries, or testes )
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Hyper/calc/emia
Hypercalcemia
Greater than normal/calcium/blood condition
Greater than normal concentration of calcium in the blood
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Hypo/calc/emia
Hypocalcemia
Below normal/calcium/blood condition
Less than normal concentration of calcium in the blood
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Adreno/megaly
Adrenomegaly
Adrenal glands/enlargement
Enlargement of one or both adrenal glands
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Adrenopathy
Any disease of the adrenal glands
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Hyper/adrenal/ism
Hyperadrenalism
Greater than normal/adrenal glands/condition
Is increased secretory activity of the adrenals.
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Cushing syndrome
Hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex causes Cushing syndrome, which is characterized by increased blood glucose levels, edema resulting from imbalance of water in the body, obesity, and masculinization in female individuals.
The cause of Cushing syndrome may be excess ACTH secretion, sometimes caused by a pituitary tumor.
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Adrenogenital syndrome or adrenal virilism
Tumors that result in hyper secretion of androgens or estrogen’s before puberty usually have dramatic affects. This is called adrenogenital syndrome or adrenal virilism..
There is a rapid onset of puberty and sex, drive in males. In females, the masculine distribution of body hair develops, and the clitoris enlarges to look more like a penis.
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Hirsutism
Is abnormal hairiness, especially an adult male pattern of hair distribution in women
Excessive growth and male distribution of body hair in the female.
Excessive body hair in a masculine distribution pattern, can result from several causes, including heredity, hormonal dysfunction, and/or medication.
Decreased estrogen, levels, or other hormonal dysfunction can result from abnormalities of the ovaries or adrenals.
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Gynecomastia
Means excessive growth of the male mammary glands.
Occasionally an adrenal tumor secretes excess estroge’s. When this occurs, the male patient experiences development of gynecomastia, which translated literally means a female breast condition
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Andro/pathy
Andropathy
Means any disease peculiar to the male gender, such as gynecomastia.
Means a disease seen only in males
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Hypo/adrenal/ism
Below normal/adrenal glands/condition
Decreased adrenal activity.
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Adrenocortical
Pertains to the adrenal cortex
The loss of medullary activity does not cause as drastic an effect as the loss of adrenocortical activity
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Hyposecretion
Hyposecretion of epinephrine produces no significant effect. Hypersecretion, usually from a tumor, puts the body in prolonged or continual fight or flight mode.
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Addison disease
Results from hyposecretion of the adrenal cortex.
Hyposecretion of the adrenal cortex in which all three classes of adrenal corticosteroids are reduced leads to Addison disease.
Life-threatening condition is characterized by dehydration, low blood glucose levels, bronzing of the skin, and general ill health. Partial or complete failure of the adrenal glands, can result from autoimmune processes, infection, tumors, or hemorrhage within the gland.
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Pancreatitis
The pancreas is subject to inflammation and cancer, and both conditions can lead to is insufficient secretion of insulin.
Inflammation of the pancreas
This disorder, as well as pancreatic cancer, can result in a deficiency of insulin secretion by the pancreas.
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Hypoinsulinism
Is a deficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas
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Glucometer
A blood glucose monitor can be used by diabetics to monitor their blood glucose levels
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Diabetes insipidus
ADH deficiency
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Versus
Diabetes mellitus
polyuria
Polydipsia
Insufficient or improper use of insulin
Two types, I & II
Hyperglycemia
Glycosuria
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Poly/phagia
Polyphagia
Many/eating
Means excessive hunger, an uncontrolled eating.
Excessive, uncontrolled eating
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Poly/dipsia
Polydipsia
Many/thirst
means excessive thirst
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Chronic complications of DM include vascular diseases and neuropathy
Vascular diseases include diseases of the heart and major vessels, as well as smaller vessels (diabetic nephropathy, which is damage to the small vessels of the kidneys and is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease in the United States)
Diabetic retinopathy, another complication, is a disorder of the Retinal blood vessels of the eye that can eventually lead to blindness.
Diabetic neuropathy is nerve damage associated with DM.
Foot complications are a common problem for the patient with diabetes, particularly the development of peripheral vascular disease, PVD, which can lead to amputation.
Early pressure damage to the heel in diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes is associated with a wide range of neuropathies, especially non-inflammatory disease processes of the heel and toes.
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Type 2 diabetes mellitus
The specific genetic link and development of type 2 diabetes mellitus is unclear.
Contributing causes may be genetic and environmental factors, as well as the aging process and obesity. It is characterized by insulin resistance, rather than insufficient insulin secretion.
Type two DM was formally called non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus NIDDM, but this term was misleading because some individuals with type 2 diabetes require insulin.
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Gestational diabetes mellitus GDM
Proper nutrition is important in gestational diabetes. Insulin is given if nutritional therapy is insufficient.
First recognized during pregnancy, is carbohydrate intolerance, usually caused by a deficiency of insulin. It disappears after delivery of the infant, but in a significant number of cases, it returns years later.
There are some other less common types of DM in addition to type 1, type 2, and gestational DM. An example is the type of DM associated with hyperthyroidism.
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Hyperinsulinism
Is excessive insulin in the body. Hyperinsulinism results in hypoglycemia, which is a decreased amount of glucose in the blood.
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Mastitis
Is an inflammatory condition of the breast that occurs most frequently in lactating women. It is usually caused by bacterial infection. If mastitis is untreated, abscesses may form.
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mammalgia
Mastodynia
Mastalgia
Mean breast pain
Pain in the breast
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Fibrocystic breast disease
Frequently encountered breast disorders include fibrocystic, disease, breast, cancer, and benign tumors.
Is a disorder characterized by single or multiple benign cysts of the breast. The cysts must be considered potentially malignant until diagnostic test indicate otherwise; there after, the breasts should be observed carefully for change. The cysts often occur as a result of cyclic breast changes that accompany the menstrual cycle.
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Breast tumors
A number of breast tumors (for example, fibroadenoma, which is a non-tender encapsulated tumor) are benign and can be differentiated from cancerous tumors by mammography and biopsy.
Excluding skin cancer, breast cancer has been the most common malignancy among women in the United States for years. The cause of breast cancer is still unknown, but early detection and improved treatment have contributed to a decrease in mortality rates. Breast cancer in females is still a major cause of cancer death. Breast cancer in males is rare.
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Breast cancer
Often begins as a small, painless, lump; dimpled skin; or nipple retraction. As the cancer progresses, there may be nipple discharge, pain, and ulceration.
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Mastocarcinoma
Cancer of the breast
Is a term that means breast cancer. Ductal carcinoma in situ DCIS is any of a large group of carcinomas confined to the lactiferous duct where it is formed
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Blood glucose entering the cells
The presence and function of insulin are essential to facilitate blood glucose entering the cells. Under normal conditions, insulin is released into the bloodstream in small increments, with increased release when food is ingested. Hypoglycemia occurs with an overdose of insulin to treat diabetes, insufficient, intake of food, or excessive exercise.
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Treatment of hypoglycemia
May consist of a glucose paste inside the cheap, administration of glucose (dextrose), such as that, found an orange juice, or intravenously if the person is unconscious.
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Excessive secretion of insulin
Strict attention to diet is important for patients with hypoglycemia caused by excessive secretion of insulin
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The goal of treating diabetes mellitus
Is to maintain a balance of the body’s insulin and glucose.
Type 1 diabetes is controlled by administration of insulin, proper diet, and exercise. Insulin is administered by injecting on a regular basis, (subcutaneous injection or via an insulin pump).
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Insulin pump
Is a portable battery operated insulin delivery device that is used by some diabetics. It can be programmed to deliver doses of insulin according to the body’s needs.
The insulin pump is worn externally. It delivers precise doses of rapid acting insulin to closely match your body’s needs. Additional insulin can be delivered on demand before an unusually large meal or to correct a high blood sugar.
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Hypophysectomy
Is surgical removal or destruction of the hypophysis (pituitary).
Surgical removal of the pituitary gland may be performed to excise a pituitary tumor or to slow the growth and spread of endocrine dependent malignant tumors. It is done only if other treatment fails to destroy all pituitary tissue.
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Glucose lowering agent
Insulin is a glucose, lowering agent. Type two diabetes is controlled by diet, exercise, oral agents, and sometimes insulin.
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Hypopituitarism
Because the most common cause of hypopituitarism is pituitary tumor, treatment consist of surgery or radiation to remove the tumor, followed by administration of deficiency hormones.
Certain types of pituitary tumors can cause over production of GH, and the treatment of choice is surgery to remove the tumor. Irradiation of the tumor and drugs may also be indicated.
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Treatment of hyperthyroidism
Is destruction of large amounts of the thyroid tissue by either surgery, or radioactive materials, or the use of anti-thyroid drugs to block the production of thyroid hormones
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Thyroidectomy
Is excision of the thyroid
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Adrenalectomy
Excision of the adrenal gland
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Parathyroidectomy
Removal of one or more parathyroids
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Pancreatectomy
Removal of the pancreas
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Pancreatoduodenosomy
A surgical procedure that is used to treat pancreatic cancer
Removal of the pancreas and duodenum.
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Whipple procedure
The head of the pancreas, and part of the stomach and the common bile duct
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Mastoptosis
Is seeking or prolapsed breasts.
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mastopexy also called a breast lift
Surgical fixation of the breasts
Is perform to correct a pendulous breast
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Metastases
The extent and location of metastases determines the therapeutic strategy in breast cancer. For breast cancer with distant metastases, non-surgical treatment (chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and sometimes radiation) may be prescribed. For women with breast cancer at a stage for which surgery is recommended, follow up after the surgery with chemotherapy, radiation, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy may be prescribed.
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Lumpectomy
Excision of a lump in the breast
Is surgical excision of a tumor that is known to be or suspected of being a cancer
Excision of the lung with removal of varying amounts of tissue is often the treatment of choice and breast cancer. The amount of extra tissue removed ranges from a small amount of surrounding healthy tissue to the entire breast.
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Mastectomy
Surgical removal of the breast
Is removal of the breast. Only breast tissue is removed in a simple mastectomy, whereas auxiliary lymph nodes, and muscles of the chest are removed in a radical mastectomy.
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Simple mastectomy
Only breast tissue is removed
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Radical mastectomy
Axillary lymph nodes, and some of the muscles of the chest are removed with the breast
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Mammoplasty
Is plastic surgery of the breast.
Breast reconstruction may begin during the original mastectomy or soon after surgical repair of the breast, using ceiling or silicone breast implants.
Mammoplasty, surgical reshaping of the breast, can be done to reduce or lift large or sagging breast and sometimes to enlarge small breasts
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Augmentation mammoplasty
Is plastic surgery to increase the size of the female breast
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Reduction mammoplasty
Is plastic surgery to reduce the size of the breast
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Antidiabetics/Antihyperglycemic Agents:
Control blood glucose levels to treat diabetes mellitus
Types include alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, biguanides, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, insulins, meglitinides, sulfonylureas, and thiazolidinediones (also known as glitazones)
acarbose (Precose)
glipizide (Glucotrol
glyburide (DiaBeta)
insulin recombinant human (Humulin R)
insulin glargine (Lantus)
liraglutide (Victoza)
metformin (Glucophage)
miglitol (Glyset)
pioglitazone (Actos)
repaglinide (Prandin)
rosiglitazone (Avandia)
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Antithyroid Drugs:
Reduce production of thyroid hormones to treat hyperthyroidism or goiter
methimazole (Tapazole)
propylthiouracil (PTU)
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Corticosteroids:
Anti-inflammatory drugs and replacement therapy to treat underfunctioning adrenal glands
dexamethasone (Decadron)
methylprednisolone (Medrol)
prednisone (Rayos)
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Growth Hormone:
Treat growth failure
somatropin (Nutropin)
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Posterior Pituitary Hormones:
Replacement antidiuretic hormone to manage symptoms of diabetes insipidus
vasopressin (Pressyn)
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Thyrotoxicosis
It’s a morbid condition caused by too much thyroid hormone in your body
It also called thyroid storm
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Hemostasis
Is fess or stability in the normal state of an organism (body)
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Iatrogenic disorder
An unfavorable response to medical treatment
