definition final exam

Question 1

• AD POPULAM

Answer 1

It is a fallacious argument which is based on claiming a truth or affirming something is good or correct because many people think so. It appeals to popular opinion instead of reason or evidence. Latin name for argumentative to fallacy, appeal to popular opinion.
Example: “The majority of our countrymen think we should have military operations overseas; therefore, it’s the right thing to do.”

Question 2

• ANTI-NATALISM

Answer 2

: It is a view that says that it is morally wrong to reproduce, to have babies. It deems procreation unethical and unjustified. Many views can explain it. This position is often based on arguments about the harm that life involves, the burden placed on future generations, or environmental concerns

Question 3

• ANTHROPOCENTRISM

Answer 3

A human-centered view of the world, where humans are seen as the most important beings. People with this perspective may care about the environment, but often only in terms of how it benefits human well-being, pleasure, or quality of life. The environment is valued primarily for its usefulness to humans.
Example: Meat Industry – Many animals are bred and raised in captivity with the sole purpose of human consumption or usage of any or all of their natural products.

Question 4

• BEGGING THE QUESTION

Answer 4

when an argument’s premises assume the truth of the conclusion or the argument you are trying to prove, instead of supporting it, leading to circular reasoning. Instead of providing evidence, the argument merely restates the claim in a different way. This fallacy fails to offer independent support for its conclusion.
Example: lying is wrong because it could never be right to tell a lie, pretending to be answering the question with a fresh statement but not really answering the quesition

Question 5

• APPLIED ETHICS

Answer 5

Applied ethics, a branch of ethics, is the practical application of moral principles to real-world issues. It examines how ethical theories guide decision-making in specific contexts. It is the field in which we are resolving very practical questions using other fields of ethics
Example of question: What is the right thing to do about this particular issue?
Answer: “It is morally right to increase taxes on the income of the wealthiest people in our society.”

Question 6

• BITE THE BULLET

Answer 6

Accepting an unpleasant or counterintuitive consequence of a theory, argument or decision, even if it seems difficult to swallow, because you believe the overall theory is still sound and valuable; essentially, embracing a hard truth despite its negative implications. It involves giving up your gut feeling or emotional resistance in order to stay logically consistent. (It is sometimes right to lie then you would tell a serial killer that she is in the room, which is absurd, reductio vs. biting the bullet is telling her where she is)
Example: In utilitarianism, “biting the bullet” could mean accepting that killing one person to save five others might be morally justified based on the principle of maximizing overall happiness, even though the act of killing is generally considered wrong.

Question 7

• BURDEN OF PROOF

Answer 7

It is a rhetorical principle; the person making the claim carries the burden of proof. The opponents must show the weaknesses in it without having to show the opposite side. The obligation on a party in a dispute to provide sufficient justification for its position. The burden of proof is usually on the person who brings a claim in a dispute.
Example: In a debate, if someone claims that ghosts exist, they have the burden of proof to provide evidence, rather than others having to prove ghosts don’t exist.

Question 8

• CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Answer 8

The central Kantian idea that absolute moral requirements oblige us to act in a certain way. It is a moral law that is universally binding on all rational beings, regardless of their personal desires or circumstances. It dictates actions we ought to take, not based on any particular goal or consequence, but because they are morally right in themselves

Question 9

• CHESTERTON’S FENCE:

Answer 9

A conservative, cautionary principle stating that whenever one contemplates reform in life, one should first seek to understand the original purpose of what is being changed—illustrated by the image of a fence. Often paraphrased as “don’t take down a fence until you know why it was put up,” encouraging caution before removing or changing established practices, laws, or customs. The idea is that these existing structures likely serve a purpose, even if that purpose isn’t immediately obvious. For example, before removing a law in society, one should ask why it exists and try to find its reason before making major changes.

Question 10

• COSMOPOLITANISM

Answer 10

It is to think of the universe as a single political order. A philosophy that views all people as belonging to a single global community and emphasizes universal moral equality and global citizenship.

Question 11

• COUNTERFACTUAL

Answer 11

It is a conditional sentence that describes what might have happened if the conditions were different. It attempts to illuminate your understanding of history if things had been different. Counterfactuals are often used in reasoning about possibility and causation. “what If” statements, needs to be a scenario of some kind different from actual historical facts to reflect on moral behaviors. Ex: would there still have been a second world was if Hitler had not been norm. Might vary facts to find if it changes your answers. Imaginative variation helps clarify our intuition.

Question 12

• CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Answer 12

Cultural relativism is the view that moral values and beliefs should be understood within their own cultural context and not judged by the standards of another culture. It holds that what is considered right or wrong depends on cultural acceptance, and that different cultures can have equally valid moral systems. It challenges the idea of universal or objective moral values.

Question 13

• DE GUSTIBUS NON EST DISPUTANDUM

Answer 13

Latin phrase that translates to “there is no disputing about taste,” essentially meaning that everyone has their own preferences and there’s no point in arguing about what someone likes or dislikes. You can’t change someone’s mind it’s just what you like and what you are familiar with.

Question 14

• DEONTOLOG Y

Answer 14

One of the main branches of normative theory, duty-based ethics. It holds that some actions are morally required, must carry out, regardless of the consequences. Moral rules are seen as binding, and one cannot adjust them based on outcomes or results.
Example: Telling the truth even if it hurts someone’s feelings. Deontology would require telling the truth even if it causes harm, because it views honesty as a moral duty regardless of the consequences.

Question 15

• DIFFERENCE PRINCIPLE

Answer 15

Comes from Rawls theory, he believes it is a position we would accept in our own society. Assuming that inequality is wrong, we will do it if we allow only as much inequality as necessary to help the people at the bottom, strongly egalitarian principle.
A concept from Rawls’s theory of justice, stating that inequality is only acceptable if it benefits the least advantaged members of society. It assumes we would choose this principle from behind a “veil of ignorance” and reflects a strongly egalitarian view that permits only as much inequality as necessary to improve conditions for those at the bottom.

Question 16

• DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY

Answer 16

As I am consuming a good or service, the second one does not have as much value as the first one. The value of the next unit decreases. When pass a certain point; it is not interesting to have even more. As a person consumes more units of a good or service, the additional satisfaction (or utility) gained from each extra unit decreases.
Example: Getting a warm winter coat when you have none is very valuable, but each additional coat you receive adds less and less usefulness or satisfaction.

Question 17

• EGOISM:

Answer 17

Selfishness, distinguished between two types:
Psychological egoism: The belief that people always act selfishly, even if they do not recognize it; everything we do is driven by self-interest, consciously or unconsciously.
Ethical egoism: The view that it is morally right to act in one’s own self-interest. While it is possible to do things for others, ethical egoism argues that prioritizing your own well-being should be the most important guiding principle (the most important thing to do is to look out for yourself)

Question 18

• ENERGEIA AND DYNAMIS

Answer 18

Concepts from Aristotelian philosophy that describe the nature of being and becoming. Energeia refers to actuality, the state of being fully realized or actualized in the present (nothing really changes). Dynamis (other extreme, everything constantly changing) refers to potential, the capacity for change or transformation toward what something can become. It also applies to human beings, where individuals have the potential to grow and change (Dynamis) but also exist in a state of actuality (Energeia) when they reach their full potential.
Example of a seed: the seed possesses the dynamis (potential) to become a plant, and the actual growth of the seed into a plant is its energeia (actuality).

Question 19

• EPISTEMIC INJUSTICE

Answer 19

Involves a link to knowledge and forms of injustice related to our understanding of the world. There are two types:
Hermeneutic Injustice, where one cannot understand what someone is saying due to a problem in interpretation (e.g., not fully understanding the issue of sexual harassment a person who experiences it may have difficulty explaining their experience because others don’t have the tools or understanding to interpret it correctly.)
Testimonial Injustice, where a person is not listened to because of the group they belong to (e.g., women historically not being heard simply because of their gender).

Question 20

• EQUAL CONCERN

Answer 20

It is not a matter of attitude; it is a matter of what institution in society is developing policies that treat everyone equally
DOES NOT PRIVILEGE RICH PEOPLE OVER POOR PEOPLE, SHOW EQUAL RESPECT FOR ALL CITIZEN

Question 21

• EUDAIMONIA

Answer 21

:(the ultimate end, purpose of human activity) Greak word for happiness. “Blessed, flourished life”. Not about whether you enjoy your life, it is rather a life of virtue, self-sufficiency, health. It is a Greek concept that refers to a life of fulfillment and well-being. For Aristotle, eudaimonia is the highest human good, the only human good that is desirable for its own sake (as an end in itself) rather than for the sake of something else.

Question 22

• FELICIFIC CALCULUS

Answer 22

Add up pleasure and pain, and how long it lasts, its duration, how soon we are going to get it, (intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, extent) 7 things calculated to measure pleasure. An algorithm formulated by Jeremy Bentham for calculating the degree or amount of happiness that a specific action is likely to cause, and hence its degree of moral rightness, based on their pleasure and pain outcomes.

Question 23

• FIDUCIARY OBLIGATIONS

Answer 23

“Fiducia” means trust. A fiduciary obligation is a legal duty, obligations that arise when one party, the fiduciary, is entrusted to act in the best interest of another party, the beneficiary, rather than their own self-interest. Fiduciaries must be aware of potential conflicts of interest. For example, a financial advisor must act in the best interests of their clients, rather than pursuing their own financial gain (personal or conflicting interests).

Question 24

• FREE RIDER:

Answer 24

A concept from rational choice theory, where individuals exploit a system’s benefits without contributing to the cost. The core idea is that free riders take advantage of resources or services without paying for them (it exploits a corrupted system by exploiting its advantages and not paying for the service). For example, a driver who uses a carpool lane (traffic lane designated for vehicles carrying more than one person) without carpooling benefits from the lane’s faster travel time without paying the cost (e.g., by sharing the ride or following the rules).

Question 25

* FUNCTIONALISM

Answer 25

When looking at particular social practice, purpose is meant to be understood. Apply to all components of society. Functionalism in the philosophy of mind is the doctrine that what makes something a mental state of a particular type does not depend on its internal constitution, but rather on their function or role in the system (ethics). It interprets society as a system whose parts (institutions, norms, roles) function together to promote stability and success (in sociology). Functionalism in different, the view that a society should be considered in different forms, making society flourish, all the parts working together, all parts are necessary for the society as a whole.

Question 26

* GOLDEN MEAN

Answer 26

The golden mean is the idea that virtue lies between extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. It was emphasized in Aristotelian virtue ethics. For example, courage is the balance between rashness and cowardice, while temperance is the balance between indulgence and insensitivity.

Question 27

* HEDONISM

Answer 27

Theory that the highest good is pleasure, think that goodness is equivalent of pleasure, increasing the amount of pleasure and decreasing the amounts of suffering. Hedonistic theories make pleasure the aim. (Aristotle rejects this. Pleasure is instead a sign of what kind of character you have)

Question 28

* HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE

Answer 28

A variety of commands that reason issues in the form of a conditional sentence. It takes the form: If you want X, then you must do Y. It tells you what you ought to do if you have a particular goal or desire. It is the basic logical structure or model we follow when we use reason to reach a desired outcome. Example: “I must study to get a degree.”

Question 29

* IMPARTIALITY:

Answer 29

A principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than based on bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons. Example: Teachers must be impartial when grading exams

Question 30

* INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL REASONS

Answer 30

This belongs to philosophy of action. It is a motivational set. It can be a student that does not. It should automatically. Scanlon talks about external reasons, there are external reasons why you should not do something. appeal to something in your subjective set, appeal to reason. Internal things that mean you should do that external like moral reason telling you you shouldn’t do this

Question 31

* INTERNALIZATION OF NORMS

Answer 31

The process by which individuals adopt societal values as their own, so that following these norms becomes self-motivated rather than driven by external rewards or punishments. Example: A person who initially follows traffic laws to avoid fines but later stops at red lights out of genuine concern for safety has internalized the norm of responsible driving.

Question 32

* INTRINSIC VALUE

Answer 32

It refers to the inherent worth of something, independent of its usefulness or benefits to humans. It is the value that an entity possesses in itself, simply by existing, rather than because it serves a particular purpose. For example, a forest may have intrinsic value (complex interactions, natural beauty, spirituality) beyond its economic benefits (useful source of wood and paper), and the Grand Canyon may be valued for its natural beauty and geological significance, regardless of human appreciation

Question 33

* IS/OUGHT GAP:

Answer 33

: It is a fallacy that attempts to make conclusions about the way things should be based on the evidence about the way things are. According to David Hume, it is the idea that we cannot logically derive moral obligations (ought) from mere facts about the world (is). Just because something happens naturally doesn’t mean it should happen morally. (big concern for naturalism) (go from factual fact to conclusion) Example: We do not currently regulate the amount of nicotine in an individual cigarette; therefore, we need not do this.

Question 34

* LEVELING DOWN OBJECTION

Answer 34

Objection to egalitarianism. It says that if you think that we should do what promotes equality, it will make us do things that are counterintuitive. Says that egalitarianism is wrong. It argues that simply aiming for equality, without considering the overall well-being of individuals, can lead to undesirable outcomes. For example, equality of vision between the blind and the sighted could be created by destroying the eyes of the sighted. The Levelling Down Objection maintains that, other things being equal, this would not in any respect constitute an improvement.

Question 35

LUCK EGALITARIANISM

Answer 35

It says that inequalities are only acceptable if they are the product of people’s fair choices. It would be OK to have less if you made a choice that led you there. But if you did not choose your condition or affect your opportunities, we should compensate you (If someone’s disadvantage is due to luck (e.g., birth, illness, background))

Question 36

* MERITOCRACY

Answer 36

rule of people with merit and talent. A system where being well leads you to having some power. Inherit control of a region if you are ruling no talent so democracy. Meritocracy is when people that rule have talent allowing them to do this.

Question 37

* METAETHICS

Answer 37

: The study of the nature, scope, ground, and meaning of moral judgment, ethical belief, or values. 3 subcategories: Subjective Relativism, Cultural relativism and Moral Objectivism Kind of question: “Are moral values real, or just a fiction invented by people?” Example of conclusion: “Moral values are fully objective.” Deals with abstract question on moral values, contain mystery things, how they relate to other properties, the most abstract philosophical field of moral value.

Question 38

* MORAL HAZARD

Answer 38

It is any scenario in which we ensure you against the cost of your actions to externalize the cost for the society. A situation in which someone is protected from the consequences of their actions, leading them to take greater risks than they otherwise would. This often happens when the cost of risky behavior is shifted (externalized) onto someone else, like society or an insurance company. Example: Supposed you buy a car, it is not insurable, so I will probably be careful, keep it in the garage. The cost of decisions is only paid by me. If insurance company decides to pay, I will not put it in the garage anymore and will ride it more quickly, because someone externally is responsible for the costs, the insurance company bears the cost of any damage, not you.

Question 39

* MORAL LICENSING

Answer 39

The psychological phenomenon where doing something good gives a person a sense of permission to do something bad or morally questionable afterward. It’s the idea that a past moral action “licenses” a future immoral one. Example: Someone donates to charity and later feels justified in lying or cutting corners, thinking they’ve already proven they’re a good person.

Question 40

* MORAL LUCK

Answer 40

Introduced by Bernard Williams, it is when a moral agent is assigned moral blame or praise for an action or its consequences, even if it is clear that said agent did not have full control over either the action or its consequences. People can be judged morally for actions influenced by factors beyond their control. Example: Two otherwise conscientious people have forgotten to have their brakes checked recently and experience brake failure, but only one of whom finds a child in the path of his car.

Question 41

* MORAL SAINTS

Answer 41

: A person whose every action is as morally good as possible, a person, that is, who is as morally worthy as can be. It is someone who always strives to act in the most morally perfect way, prioritizing ethical considerations over personal desires.

Question 42

* MORAL STATUS

Answer 42

An entity has moral status if it matters morally for its own sake and there are moral reasons for how it should be treated. For example, animals have moral status if their suffering matters independently of how it affects others. Moral status means being worthy of moral consideration. (who or what deserves moral consideration.) Example: Let’s say someone kicks a dog. If we think it’s wrong because the dog feels pain and that pain matters for the dog’s own sake, then the dog has moral status. But if we only care because the owner is upset, then we’re not treating the dog as having moral status — just the owner.

Question 43

* MORAL V. PRUDENTIAL

Answer 43

: Moral refers to what is right or wrong based on ethical principles, often concerned with others' well-being and fairness. Prudential refers to what is wise or beneficial for an individual, typically based on self-interest and long-term benefits. Moral considerations focus on duty and fairness, while prudential decisions focus on personal advantage. Moral the thing we ought to do according to a moral principal, prudence, what we want to do according to our own beliefs (ex. Soldier, morally would be to defend the country, prudentially would be to not go and go sail instead)

Question 44

* NORMATIVE V. DESCRIPTIVE

Answer 44

A descriptive claim attempts to report something about the world (how things are). A normative claim contains a value or judgment about whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, or best or worst (how things should be).

Question 45

* OUGHT IMPLIES CAN

Answer 45

It suggests that a person is only morally obligated to perform an action if they are capable of doing so. This principle is often used to argue against holding individuals accountable for actions that are beyond their control. Williams discusses this idea in the context of moral relativism, examining how different societies may have varying interpretations of moral obligations and the capabilities required to fulfill them. To say that someone has a duty is to imply that someone is able of doing so

Question 46

* PAROCHIALISM

Answer 46

Parochialism is the quality of showing interest only in a narrow range of matters, especially those that directly affect yourself, your town, or your country, without considering others. The system tries to avoid parochialism and political bias. It’s when people make ethical decisions based only on what’s important in their own community or society, rather than looking at the bigger picture or applying universal moral standards. The idea of narrow mindedness, narrow attitude on things, criticize someone’s moral judgment, no good reason (only based on your own experiences) Ex: wearing the hijab, I have no experience about it, so if I don’t give arguments , it is parochialism

Question 47

* PATERNALISM

Answer 47

Paternalism is a thinking or behavior by people in authority that results in them making decisions for other people that, although they may be to those people’s advantage, prevent them from taking responsibility and autonomy for their own lives. Ex: I take decision for someone in coma, tell daughter to stop eating chips

Question 48

* PHRONESIS

Answer 48

: It is a Greek word that means practical wisdom. It enables the individual to discern and make good judgments about what is the right thing to do in a situation by balancing moral principles with real-world circumstances.. It is a type of wisdom or intelligence concerned with practical actions. Example: A doctor treating an elderly patient knows that the best medical option might extend life but cause great suffering. Using phronesis, the doctor weighs the patient's values, quality of life, and medical facts to decide on a more compassionate course of care — not just what’s technically “correct.”

Question 49

* PLURALISM

Answer 49

Pluralism is a political philosophy that holds that people of different beliefs, backgrounds, and lifestyles can coexist in the same society and participate equally in the political process. It leads decision-makers to negotiate solutions that contribute to the “common good” of the entire society.

Question 50

* POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE RIGHTS

Answer 50

negative right are rights that require others not to interfere with your actions. (ex. Freedom of expression others can’t silence you). Positive right that requires others to provide you with certain goods or services, rights that imply larger burden for people in society. (ex. Healthcare, education people pay for you (to the government ) for you to have your service

Question 51

* PRACTICAL V. PATHOLOGICAL LOVE

Answer 51

practical love is love shown through actions. It means showing due respect to people as a person (rational beings), treating them morally regardless of your feelings towards them (ex. Helping a stranger in need) (duty-based and independent of personal feelings). Pathological love is love based on natural feelings, such as affection, or emotional attachment (ex. Loving a friend or family member because you care for them)

Question 52

* PRINCIPAL-AGENT PROBLEM

Answer 52

They are conflicts of interest problems; the agent is the person assigned the task and the principal is the one hiring the agent. It is when the agent performs a task based on her own interest. (ex. manager and an agent. Agent could prioritize personal bonuses over money that all the company can benefit from) This happens when one person (the agent) is hired to do something for another person (the principal), but the agent makes choices that help themselves instead of doing what's best for the principal.

Question 53

* PRINCIPLE OF CHARITY

Answer 53

The principle of charity denotes that, when interpreting someone’s statement, you should assume that the best possible interpretation of that statement is the one that the speaker meant to convey and not falsehoods, logical fallacies, or irrationality to people’s argument, when there is a rational alternative available. Look for reasons Example: If someone presents you with an argument that can be interpreted in two possible ways, one of which is logically sound and the other of which is fallacious, you should assume that the logically sound interpretation is the one that they meant to convey, as long as it’s reasonable to do so.

Question 54

* PRISONER’S DILEMMA

Answer 54

It is a scenario in which two people can’t trust each other, so they act in their own self-interest, making it rational for them to act in self-defeating ways (when they cannot cooperate). It produces a worse outcome than if they had cooperated. (ex. If two people see themselves cheating but they both say something because they can’t cooperate and do as if nothing happened so they both say the other cheated, then they both get zero on their exam)

Question 55

* PRIORITARIANISM

Answer 55

combines idea of utilitarianism and equity. Like utilitarianism, it aims to maximize overall well-being, but puts more emphasis on the people that are worst off. The interest of the worst off count for more. (ex. If you have the choice to give your car to a rich or a poor person, you should give it to the poor since they count for more)

Question 56

* PUBLIC REASON

Answer 56

Public reason requires that the moral or political rules that regulate our common life be justifiable or acceptable to all those persons over whom the rules appear to be to have authority. In other words, a reasoning that is shared, accessible, and justifiable to all members of a society regardless of personal beliefs or doctrine. Public arguments must be acceptable to everyone Example: The rule that it requires a hunting permit in order to be able to buy a gun is acceptable to all, since it makes people feel safe and there are no illegal possession and it can lead to public safety

Question 57

* REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM

Answer 57

It is the latin word for reduction to absurdity. The argument attempts to prove that the claim itself is false or unreasonable by showing that the opposite scenario would lead to absurdity. Example: If stealing were morally acceptable, then anyone could steal anything at any time. This would lead to a breakdown of society where no one owns anything, which is absurd. Therefore, stealing cannot be morally acceptable.

Question 58

* REFLECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM

Answer 58

Reflective equilibrium is the dominant method in moral and political philosophy to arrive at justified moral beliefs. It is the mutual adjustment of principles and judgments in new arguments and theory. It seeks coherence between our moral principles and our judgment about particular cases. Ex: think that killing is wrong, but agree on medical help to die. You revise your original principle to say that killing is wrong except in certain cases.

Question 59

* RULE-UTILITARIANISM

Answer 59

It is a way to maximize happiness. It holds that we should follow rules that, if generally followed by everyone, would lead to the greatest overall happiness. It calculates the impact of everyone adhering to the rule. If everyone follows this rule, it would produce the best outcome. (ex. Rule do not lie)

Question 60

* SITTLICHKEIT

Answer 60

It comes from Hegel. He thinks that Kantianism is on the right track but it is not complete. It is the highest level, ethical development, where morality is embedded in the social institution, laws and customs. You should be doing what the law says, the law reflects the community’s morality. It is a conservative vision. You rally to what your community’s ethical life is all about. It goes beyond individual moral reasoning, but puts emphasis on living ethically.

Question 61

* SLIPPERY SLOPE

Answer 61

A slippery slope argument claims that a first step will lead to a chain of related events resulting in a significant, often negative consequence.

Question 62

* SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY:

Answer 62

basic moral theory. Sees morality as arising from mutual agreement contract between individuals. People are assumed to start in a state of nature where there are no laws and then agree to form a society to protect their interest. Morality is a construction or contract. We go in this contract for our interest. Works only if people don’t free ride

Question 63

* SPECIESISM:

Answer 63

popularized by Singer comes out of animal etics. It refers to the unjustified bias or discrimination in favor of one species over the other without morally relevant justifications. (ex. Prefer eating pork but not wanting to eat a dog, yet, both are living animals)

Question 64

* STATE OF NATURE

Answer 64

It is a violent state, there are no laws put in place, everyone has a right to everything, even the right to kill others. Not a good place to be because just like living like animals. Pre-social condition of human beings.

Question 65

* SUCKER’S PAYOFF

Answer 65

It is when you get the worst possible outcome in a situation but you are the only one waiting and following the social contract (rules in place) while everybody follow the free riders or defect and become a state of nature. (ex. In traffic, cutting in front or waiting in line until it becomes your turn)

Question 66

* SUMMUM BONUM

Answer 66

: Latin word meaning greatest good. Refers to the ideal or ultimate goal of human life. Higher life for human beings. It is often associated with happiness and moral perfection. Represent the most fulfilling and meaningful life.

Question 67

* SUMMUM MALUM

Answer 67

It is the latin term for the greatest evil. Represents the most extreme form of harm or suffering one can experience. It is the opposite of Summum Bonum. Worst state or condition one can encounter. (ex. avoidable death, getting killed before it is your time)

Question 68

* SUPEREROGATORY

Answer 68

: Supererogatory refers to acts that are good but in excess of what is morally or legally required. It can also mean something that is superfluous or unnecessary. Often, they are acts that go above and beyond, which are often considered to be heroic and selfless. (ex. Community work)

Question 69

* TELEOLOGY

Answer 69

Teleology is the belief that everything has a special purpose or use/end goal. It is often seen in Aristotle’s idea that everything in nature has a "final cause." It focuses on explaining things in terms of their purpose or final cause. In ethics, teleological theories, like utilitarianism, judge actions by their consequences rather than inherent morality

Question 70

* TEMPERANCE:

Answer 70

Temperance is the control of your behavior, such as not drinking or eating too much. It involves maintaining balance and avoiding excess, capable of being moderate. Example: Her commitment to temperance allowed her to enjoy social events without overindulging in alcohol.

Question 71

* THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

Answer 71

When carry out an experiment we imagine a hypothetical scenario and use it to explore ideas and test intuitions, or draw conclusion. In ethics, we can not run this as a real experiment, so it is more a thought experiment, how we would intuitively reply. (ex the trolley problem where you decide to either pull the liver to divert or stay on the same tract, either killing one person or kill five)

Question 72

* TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

Answer 72

It illustrates the problem of collective action. When individuals act in their own self-interest, exploit a shared, finite resource until it is no longer available. Don’t discipline ourselves as individuals. (ex. With farmers and there cattle)

Question 73

* TROLLEY PROBLEM

Answer 73

It is a thought experiment to test our intuition. Original version is one of those scenarios where a trolley is heading down a track and it has a choice where five people are strapped and will be killed if the trolley continues or if you pull the lever it can divert and you only kill one person. Is it okay to let them die not on purpose, or should I push a button and kill the other person on purpose? Leads to actively causing harm or passively allowing harm

Question 74

* UNIVERSALIZATION:

Answer 74

It asks whether the maxim or rule behind an action could be consistently applied to everyone without contradiction. If the action would lead to an undesirable world when universalized, then it is morally wrong to do it. (ex. If you are considering lying, you must ask everyone did that, trust would break down and lying would no longer work)

Question 75

* VEIL OF IGNORANCE

Answer 75

It is a thought experiment of justice and fairness. It asks to imagine the rules or principles of a society without knowing anything about our identity. The rules that it lives by are applicable to every individual in general. If there is a large disparity of wealth, and you carry out the experiment not knowing if you are rich or poor, then you are most likely to choose rules that are fair and just to everyone. There are no personal biases

Question 76

* VIRTUE

Answer 76

It is a moral quality that reflects a person’s commitment to doing what is right and good. It is often associated with qualities like honesty, kindness, and wisdom. It is shaped by the vision of the good life. Aristotle’s def: Virtue is a character state concerned with deliberate choice, a stand in a mean that is relevant. (ex. Patience is a virtue)

Question 77

* WEAKNESS OF THE WILL

Answer 77

Weakness of the will refers to acting in a way contrary to one’s sincerely held moral values (against their better judgment) even though they know what the right or best action is. Often, those decisions are taken due to a lack of self-control or willpower. (ex. Someone did f rather than e, even though he was convinced that e was the better thing to do all things considered.)

Question 78

* ZERO-SUM GAME

Answer 78

any sort of interaction between people, where one person’s gain is exactly balanced by another person’s loss. The total amount of benefit stays constant. It all adds to zero, +1-1=0. If you get something than somebody has to be losing something. (ex. Any sport game or video game)