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Ethics definitions > Definitions > Flashcards

Definitions Flashcards

1
Q

Morality

A

Human’s ability to distinguish between right and wrong

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2
Q

Ethics

A

The systematic study of morality

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3
Q

Ethical theories

A

The principles and rules that determine whether something is right or wrong in different situations

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4
Q

Normative ethics =

A

Study of how we ought to behave

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5
Q

Normative ethical theories =

A

Rules, guidelines, principles and approaches that determine right and wrong

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6
Q

Business ethics =

A

The study of business situations, activities and decisions where issues of right and wrong are addressed

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7
Q

3 differences between ethics and the law

A
  1. The law does not cover all ethical issues
  2. Not all legal issues are ethical
  3. Law and ethics can involve contradictions
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8
Q

5 reasons why business ethics is challenging

A
  1. Comprehensive: adresses challenging questions at individual, organizational and societal levels
  2. Cross-disciplinary: philosophy, management, economics, political science, earth system sciences
  3. Abstract nature: it can be difficult to recognize the practical implications of ethical theories
  4. Critical theories: don’t take theories and related practices as given
  5. Experience: experience in business can be helpful
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9
Q

3 dimensions of the Moral Machine that people agree to

A
  1. Sparing humans over pets
  2. Sparing young vs old
  3. Sparing the greater number
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10
Q

Differences in the Moral Machine clusters (Southern, Eastern, Western) (5)

A
  1. Sparing the young and sparing higher status: low in Eastern cluster, higher in Southern
  2. Sparing humans over pets: weaker preference for Southern cluster
  3. Sparing women and fit characters: higher in Southern clusters
  4. Sparing pedestrians: weak preference in all clusters
  5. Sparing the lawful over unlawful: all the same
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11
Q

Cultural and economic predictors of Moral Machine (4)

A
  1. Individualistic countries: sparing the greater number
    Collectivistic countries: weaker preference for sparing the younger
  2. Countries with poor people and weak institutions: more tolerant of pedestrians who cross illegally
  3. Countries with less economic equality: treat rich and poor less equally
  4. All countries showed preference for women, stronger in nations with better health and survival prospects for women
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12
Q

Act Utilitarianism =

A

Whether a single act is right or wrong depends on the amount of common good it produces

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13
Q

Rule utilitarianism =

A

Focuses on creating rules that produce the most common good

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14
Q

Natural human rights =

A

Basic, important, inalienable entitlements that should be respected and protected in every single situation. These are based in human dignity and lead to a duty for others to respect, protect and support them.

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15
Q

Justice =

A

The simultaneous fair treatment of individuals in a given situation with the result that everybody gets what they deserve

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16
Q

Bazerman Guidelines for creating more value (5)

A
  1. Compare alternatives (utilitarianism)
  2. Look for trade-offs (what each one values in negotiations)
  3. See time as a scarce resource (prioritize and focus efforts)
  4. Integrate your ethical self (opportunities for improvement)
  5. Design architecture (make positive value creation easier)
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17
Q

Ethical absolutism/objectivism

A

There are eternal, universally, applicable moral principles. Right and wrong are objective qualities that can be rationally determined, irrespective of the consequences

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18
Q

Ethical relativism

A

Morality is context-dependent and subjective. There are no universal right and wrongs that can be rationally determined. It depends on the traditions, convictions or practices of those making the decision

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19
Q

Descriptive ethical theory =

A

Theory that describes how ethical decisions are actually made in business and explains what factors influence the process and outcomes of those decisions

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20
Q

Economic view =

A

The motive of human decision making is their own economic interest and well-being. Humans are perceived as rational.

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21
Q

Ethical dilemma =

A

A situation which is experienced as uneasy, where you have to choose between 2 or more actions and these options involve moral/ethical aspects

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22
Q

Moral imagination =

A

Seeing the decision as ethical and imagining alternative solutions

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23
Q

Cognitive moral development =

A

Theory that explains the different levels of moral reasoning that an individual can apply to ethical issues and problems depending on their cognitive capacity

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24
Q

3 levels of cognitive moral development

A
  1. Rewards and punishments
  2. Social expectations
  3. Autonomous thinking
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25
Q

Personal values and integrity =

A

The moral principles or accepted standard of a person

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26
Q

Personal integrity =

A

An individuals adherence to a consistent set of moral principles or values –> Holding to your own ethical principles and values

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27
Q

Whistle blowing =

A

Intentional acts by employees to expose perceived ethical or legal violation by their organization

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28
Q

Moral intensity =

A

How important the issue is to the decision maker

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29
Q

Individual factors in ethics

A
  1. Age and gender
  2. Education and employment
  3. Psychological factors
    -Cognitive moral development (rewards&punishments, social expectations, autonomous thinking)
    -Locus of control (internal vs. external)
  4. Personal values and integrity
  5. Moral imagination
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30
Q

National and cultural characteristics in ethics

A
  1. Individualism/collectivism
  2. Power distance
  3. Masculinity/Femininity
  4. Indulgence
  5. Short-term/long-term oriented
  6. Uncertainty avoidance
31
Q

Situational factors in ethics (Issue related factors)

A
  • Moral intensity:
    1. Magnitude of consequence: the expected sum of the harms/benefits for those impacted by the problem or action.
    2. Social consensus: the degree to which people are in agreement over the ethics of the problem or action
    3. Probability of effect: the likelihood that the harms/benefits are actually going to happen.
    4. Temporal immediacy: the speed with which the consequences are likely to occur.
    5. Proximity: the feeling of nearness (social, cultural, psychological, physical) the decision-maker has for those impacted by their decision.
    6. Concentration of effect: the extent to which the consequences of the action are concentrated heavily of a few or lightly on many.
  • Moral framing: the language used to expose or mask the ethical nature of the issue
    1. Denial of responsibility: actors engaged in corrupt behaviours perceive that they have no other choice than to participate in such activities.
    2. Denial of injury: actors are convinced that no one is harmed by their actions.
    3. Denial of victim: actors counter any blame for their actions by arguing that the violated party deserved whatever happened.
    4. Social weighting (condemn the condemner & selective social comparison): moderate the salience of
    corrupt behaviour
    5. Appeal to higher loyalties: actors argue that their violation of norms is due to their attempt to realize a higher-order value.
    6. Metaphor of the ledger (credits): actors argue that they are entitled to indulge in deviant behaviours because of their accrued credits (time and effort) in their jobs).
32
Q

Moral framing =

A

The language used to expose or mask the ethical nature of the issue. It is used to make an unethical action more acceptable to oneself or third parties

33
Q

Situational factors in ethics (context related factors)

A
  1. System of reward: people are likely to do what they are rewarded for, e.g. bonuses for salespeople in order to motivate them to achieve greater numbers of sales.
  2. Authority: the exercise of hierarchical power by managers on subordinates; people do what they are told to do, e.g. Milgram experiment.
  3. Bureaucracy: a type of formal organization based on rational principles and characterized by detailed rules and procedures, impersonal hierarchical relations, and a fixed division of tasks➔
    -Suppression of moral autonomy
    -Instrumental morality
    -Distancing from the consequences of the actions
    -Denial of moral status
  4. Work roles: prescribed work roles and the associated expectations have influences on decision-making→our individual morality, values, and beliefs can be stifled by our adoption of the values and beliefs embedded in our work role.
  5. Organizational culture: provides context and direction for decision-making.
  6. National and cultural context: the nation in which the decision is actually taking place, regardless of the decision-maker’s nationality→likely to influence behaviour.
34
Q

Cognitive decision making process

A
  1. Recognize the issue
  2. Make moral judgement
  3. Establish moral intent
  4. Engage in moral behavior
35
Q

Anchoring bias =

A

People are over reliant on the first piece of information they hear. In salary negotiations, whoever makes the first offer establishes a range of reasonable possibilities in each person’s mind.

36
Q

Confirmation bias =

A

We tend to only listen to information that confirms our preconceptions

37
Q

Pro-innovation bias =

A

When a proponent of an innovation tends to overvalue its usefulness and undervalue its limitations

38
Q

Stereotyping bias =

A

Expecting a group or person to have certain qualities without having real information about the person. Allows us to quickly identify strangers as friends or enemies, but people tend to overuse and abuse it

39
Q

Problems with good Leadership

A
  1. Moral luck
  2. Dirty hand problem
  3. Moral perfection as an achievable target?
  4. Altruism as a necessity for leadership
  5. Transformational leadership as strong values?
  6. Do leaders need to be charismatic?
  7. From Plato’s philosopher king to weavers
40
Q

Mismatches between current and ancestral (5)

A
  1. Propensity of self interest
    - Kin selection
    - Reciprocal altruism
    - Indirect reciprocity
  2. Motivation for relative rather than absolute status
    - Costly signaling
    - Competitive altruism
  3. Proclivity to unconsciously copy others
    - Social norms
    - Mimicking
    - Cultural evolution
  4. Predisposition to be short sighted
    - Life history theory
    - Sexual selection
    - Parental investment
  5. Proneness to disregard impalpable concerns
    - Sensory mechanism
    - Biophilia
41
Q

Mismatches between current and ancestral: solutions

A
  1. Propensity of self interest:
    - Highlight individual benefits
    - Threaten reputation
    - Donate first and then ask to reciprocate
    - Create small dense networks
  2. Motivation for relative rather than absolute status:
    - Pro-social competition and rankings
    - Easily identifiable self-sacrificing behavior
  3. Proclivity to unconsciously copy others
    - Depict higher prevalence of desired behavior
    - Use social approval
  4. Predisposition to be short sighted
    - Emphasize present consequences
    - Highlight stability
    - Attractiveness of social and sustainable behavior
  5. Proneness to disregard impalpable concerns
    - Locality of environmental problems
    - Create links between behavior and consequences
42
Q

Social entrepreneurship =

A

Social enterprises adress social problems by means of markets. They are commonly understood as having dual (commercial and social) goals at the same time and are seen as institutional change agents

43
Q

6 social enterprises problem domains

A
  1. Housing and development
  2. Social services
  3. Education and research
  4. Environment
  5. Health
  6. Culture and recreation
44
Q

Social enterprises: funding and accountability

A
  1. Fees and sales
  2. Grants
  3. Donations
  4. Investment
45
Q

Corporate responsibility =

A

A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis and in a context specific way.

46
Q

Corporate sustainability

A

Managing a firm in such a way that its activities meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs

47
Q

Stakeholder theory =

A

It aims to explain the nature of the relationship between organizations and those persons with a stake in the operations and outcomes of business activity

48
Q

Stakeholder

A

Any group or individual that affects or is affected by the achievements of an organization’s objectives

49
Q

3 focus areas of stakeholder theory:

A
  1. Descriptive = outline critical relationships
  2. Instrumental = identify effective practices
  3. Normative = critique the role and purpose of the firm
50
Q

Stakeholder mapping =

A
  1. Identify stakeholders: List relevant groups, organizations, and people and identify their focus areas
  2. Analyze: analyze + rank stakeholder relevance
    - Influence, expertise, orientation, vulnerability, capacity, trust
  3. Map: visualize relationships to objectives and to other stakeholders
  4. Select engagement approaches: assign specific approaches for your stakeholders
    - Monitor, Message, Advocate, Consult, Collaborate, Innovate
51
Q

4 core elements of recommended climate related financial disclosures

A
  1. Governance: the organization’s governance around climate related risks and opportunities
  2. Strategy: the actual and potential impacts of climate related risks and opportunities on the organization’s businesses, strategy and financial planning
  3. Risk management: the processes used by the organization to identify, assess and manage climate-related risks
  4. Metrics and targets: the metrics and targets used to assess and manage relevant climate-related risks and opportunities
52
Q

3 Circular economy principles

A
  1. Design out waste and pollution
  2. Keep products and materials in use
  3. Regenerate natural system
53
Q

3 Circular strategies

A
  1. Product Life Extension (PLE)
  2. Design for Recycling (DFR)
  3. Retain Product Ownership (RPO)
54
Q

3 Key ideas in conceptualizing business model

A
  1. How key components and functions or parts are integrated to deliver value to customers
  2. How those parts are interconnected within the organization and throughout its supply chain and stakeholder networks
  3. How the organization generates value or creates profit through those interconnections
55
Q

Ethical egoism

A
  • It is not really seen as an ethical theory
  • An action is morally right if the decision maker freely decides in order to pursue his short term desires and long term interests
  • Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith, Ayn Rand
  • The influence of egoism is related to the perception of ideal markets and the ‘invisible hand’
56
Q

Problems with ethical egoism

A
  • Inconsistent as it ”condones blatant immoral wrongs, since ‘anything goes’-violence against the vulnerable, theft, even murder-as long as the egoist’s needs are served”
  • Thus, amoral view based on short term satisfaction of needs is contradictory with our moral principles.
  • Enlightened egoism focuses on the meeting of long-term human interests.
  • Enlightened egoism does not take a stance on the nature of the interests and desires of individuals, which can still lead to problems due to conflicting interests.
  • Although taking care of your needs and interests is morally important, the theory needs to be complemented by more developed ethical theories.
57
Q

Utilitarianism

A
  • An act is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good to the greatest amount of people affected by the action.
  • Important authors Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill(1806-1873).
  • Utilitarianism is very influential in normative economics, which is related to the egoistic view of humans in economics.
  • Egoism in economics tends to function within a utilitarian societal moral theory.
  • Act utilitarianism: Whether a single act is right or wrong depends on the amount of common good it produces.
  • Rule utilitarianism: Focuses on creating rules that produce the most common good.
  • In practice, utilitarianism becomes an analysis of advantages and disadvantages, a cost/benefit analysis.
58
Q

Problems of Utilitarianism

A
  • A utilitarian good is subjective, context-dependent,
    and difficult to compare between people.
  • Utilitarianism runs into difficulties in questions related
    to the just distribution of wealth.
  • Utilitarianism can be contradictory with the idea of
    respecting basic rights.
  • Maximizing is generally speaking not the best
    approach to addressing all values.
  • Utilitarianism does not include the idea of reciprocity.
59
Q

Ethics of duties

A
  • Most famous author: ImmanuelKant (1724-1804).
  • Central concepts to Kant’s moral philosophy are
    duty, consistency, dignity, and universality.
  • Duties do not mean mechanistically following
    rules, but they involve human’s ability to develop
    moral law and moral rules.
  • Kant’s deontological theory develops principles or
    categorical imperatives to guide our actions.
    Categorical imperatives:
  • Universal applicability: Check that the principle is acceptable to every human being
  • Respect for persons: A human being is a valuable autonomically being and not a means to an end or tool
60
Q

Problems with ethics of duties:

A
  • Ethics of duties is a rather difficult and abstract
    theory.
  • Morality can be seen as a heavy burden to bear.
  • Morality is founded perhaps too strictly on the
    use of reason.
  • Ethics of duties undervalues outcomes of
    actions.
61
Q

Rights & Justice:

A
  • Natural (human) rights are certain basic, important, inalienable entitlements that should be respected and protected in every single situation. These are based in human dignity and lead to a duty for others to protect, respect, and support them.
  • Main natural rights: Right to life, freedom, property, speech, privacy, conscience, and fair trial among others.
  • Central authors: John Locke(1632-1714) and John Rawls (1921-2002).
  • Rights-based thinking are a central part of Western political and ethical thought and the foundation of universal human rights.
  • Justice: The simultaneous fair treatment of individuals in a given situation with the result that everybody gets what they deserve.
  • Key ideas: Procedural vs. distributive fairness; veil of ignorance; social contract; system of basic liberties, judgement of society by the state of the least advantaged, and equal opportunity.
62
Q

Problems of rights & justice:

A
  • Most lists of basic rights can be seen to be
    relatively arbitrary. Rights are criticized as being
    too Western and/or neocolonial.
  • Basic rights presuppose institutions that allow for
    recourse in case of breach. Theory does not offer
    practical guidance in extreme situations.
63
Q

Virtue ethics

A

The central aim is not to fulfill duties or aim for the greatest good, but to lead a good life.
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the individual decision-maker.
- Authors: Aristotle & Alasdair MacIntyre

64
Q

Feminist ethics

A
  • Instead of abstract moral principles, feminist ethics emphasizes caring, empathy, and
    harmonious and healthy social relationships.
  • Carol Gilligan & Virginia Held
65
Q

Discourse ethics

A
  • Discourse ethics focuses on solving ethical conflicts through democratic dialogue and
    providing a process of norm generation.
  • Jurgen Habermas
66
Q

Postmodern ethics

A
  • Moving away from rationality, postmodern ethics focuses on emotional moral impulses
    towards others, and focuses on individual questioning of universal rules
  • Zygmunt Bauman & Emmanuel Levinas
67
Q

Culture wars

A

Within cultures, there is a divide between individualizing and binding moral orientation, which cause culture wars

68
Q

Bureaucracy =

A

Type of formal organization based on rational principles and characterized by detailed rules and procedures, impersonal hierarchical relations, and a fixed division of tasks
- Suffocates moral autonomy, makes morality instrumental, and distances the consequences of action

69
Q

Unintentional unethical decision making

A
  1. Implicit form of prejudice
  2. Bias that favors one’s own group
  3. Tendency to overclaim credit
  4. Conflict of interest
70
Q

How do you address biases? (7)

A

Collect data & metrics over time, identify bias type, gather experiences, conduct thought experiments (veil of ignorance), leadership, language & tweaks

71
Q

Mission and value statement =

A

Describes values to put their ethics into practice

72
Q

Purpose statement =

A

Provides meaning for the work of the organization

73
Q

Code of ethics =

A

Guide of principles designed to help professionals conduct business with honesty and integrity

Ethics definitions (1 decks)

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