Definitions Flashcards
1
Q
Homeostasis
A
The ability of the body to maintain relatively constant internal conditions
Example:
In terms of body temp, blood pressure, blood glucose, water balance, pH
2
Q
Organic Compounds
A
Contains Carbon-Carbon bonds
Ex:
Sugars, proteins, fats
3
Q
Inorganic Compounds
A
do not contains Carbon-Carbon bonds
Ex:
Water, oxygen, table salt (NaCl)
4
Q
Enzyme
A
Substances that speed up chemical reactions, but are not consumed in the process
- almost like protein
- each enzyme catalysts a specific reaction
- they only speed up the reaction
5
Q
ATP
A
(Adenosine Triphosphate)
Consists of the nitrogenous base “A”, a sugar (ribose), and 3 phosphate groups
- the immediate most direct energy source for our cells
- calls can’t use glucose directly, instead they transform glucose into numerous ATP
-glucose –> mitochondrion –> ~36 ATP
6
Q
Peptide Bond
A
A group of 4 covalently bonded atoms that links 2 amino acids in a protein or other peptide.
-joins the OH of one amino acid to the H of another amino acid and releases H2O
H H O
l l ll
H-N--C--C-OH
l
R
7
Q
Acid
A
An H+ donor
A compound that releases H+ into solution
8
Q
Base
A
A compound that can remove H+ ins from solution
9
Q
Phospholipid
A
An amphipathic molecule composed of 2 fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group bonded to the 3 carbons of a glycerol molecule.
-composes most of the molecules of the plasma membrane and other cellular membranes.
10
Q
Hydrophobic
A
Pertaining to molecules that do not attract water or dissolve in it because of their nonpolar nature
-such molecules tend to dissolve in lipids and other nonpolar solvents
11
Q
Simple Diffusions
A
The movement of a substance from an area where it is highly concentrated to an area of lower concentration.
-it’s caused by random molecular motion and happens automatically
12
Q
Osmosis
A
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward and area of high solute concentration.
13
Q
Active Transport
A
Uses ATP energy to actively pump salutes across the membrane against their concentration gradient.
-closer to facilitated diffusion
14
Q
Microvilli
A
Densely packed, short, non-movable extensions
-greatly increase the surface area of the cell
15
Q
Cilia
A
Longer extensions of the cell membrane that beat in a rhythmic fashion.
16
Q
Mitochondrion
A
Major site for cellular respiration
- where ATP is formed by metabolizing glucose using O2
- cells with higher energy demands contain more mitochondria and the cells that need greater energy can add more mitochondria.
17
Q
Ribosomes
A
Sites where proteins are synthesized from amino acids
-they float freely in cytosol or are attached to the ER
18
Q
ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
A
A system of tubes running throughout the cell and continuous with the nuclear membrane
RER and SER
19
Q
Mitosis
A
Original nucleus divides to produce another genetically identical to itself
-technically not cell division but the division of the nucleus.
20
Q
Simple squamous epithelial tissue
A
a) flat shape makes it ideal for the rapid diffusion of substances.
b) provides smooth surface to reduce friction
21
Q
Pseudostratified columnar
A
Secretion and movement of mucus; had cilia and goblet cells
22
Q
Gap junction
A
a) cells are held together by interlocking protein called connexons
b) the connexon has a hollow space through its center that allows small molecules and ions to pass directly from cell to cell
23
Q
Mesenchyme
A
a) arises early in embryonic development
b) eventually gives rise to all the other CT types
c) some sticks around in mature tissue to regenerate damaged tissues
24
Q
Areolar Connective Tissue
A
a) “syrupy” ground substance
b) may contain all 3 fiber types (collagen, reticular, and elastic) loosely arranged
Functions:
- soft packing material
- reservoir of water and salts
- plays an important role in inflammation
25
Keratinocytes
a) most common cell type in epidermis
b) these cells make the fibrous protein keratin
c) tightly joined to each other by desmosomes
26
Stratum Corneum
a) consists of dead keratinocytes
b) protects deeper skin from abrasion and infection
c) limits water loss from the skin
27
Stratum Basale
a) a region of active mitosis that produces new skin cells
- gets new epidermis every 30-40 days
b) newly formed keratinocytes die as they get too far from the dermal blood supply
c) other cell types found in the stratum basale
- melanocytes=skin color
- tactile cells=sensative
28
Melanocyte
a) produces the pigment melanin
b) melanin is then transferred to neighboring keratinocytes which concentrate the pigment on the "sunny" side of their nuclei
29
Dendrite cell of skin
A macrophage (wbc) that detects pathogens and toxins
30
Sebum
a) an oily substances secreted by sebaceous glands that softens and lubricates the hair and skin
b) has antimicrobial properties
c) these glands are usually associated with hair follicles
31
Compact bone
a) makes up outer surface of bone
b) richly vascularized
c) heavy
d) found where stress loads are large and come mainly from one direction
32
Spongy Bone
a) found in center of bones
b) not directly vascularized
c) much lighter than compact bone
d) found where there are weak-moderate stresses coming for multiple directions
33
Sesamoid bone
Bones that are formed within the tendons in response to mechanical stress
34
Hydroxyapatite
a) makes bone hard
b) the calcium phosphate interacts with other calcium salts to form these crystals
c) if bone just had these crystals of hydroxyapatite, it would shatter easily.
35
Osteoblasts
a) bone-building cells
b) connect to each other via gap junction
c) once ossification is complete, the osteoblasts become "trapped" in the lacunae and transform into osteocytes
36
Osteocytes
a) mature bone cells that maintain the tissue by recycling Ca2+ salts
b) exchange nutrients with their neighbors via gap junctions
c) participate in fracture repair
37
Osteoclasts
a) "bone destroyer"
b) secretes acids/enzymes that break down the matrix
c) very large cells derived from wbc's
38
Periosteum
Dense irregular CT that wraps the outer surface of bones
a) osteoblasts on the inner surface of the periosteum secrete the bony matrix
b) tendons attach to the periosteum
39
Osteon
The fundamental building blocks of compact bone
40
Osteoporosis
a) refers to a group of diseases in which bone is degraded faster than it can be rebuilt
b) very low bone density
c) the bone becomes porous and more susceptible to fractures
d) especially prone to compression fractures and broken hip
e) can occur in either sex but is especially coon in postmenopausal women because at menopause, the ovary secretes less estrogen; thus, less of a stimulus for bone grow
f) it can occur in female athletes who have very low body fat (adipose tissue)
41
Symphysis
A joint in which two bones are held together by fibrocartilage
42
Synovial joint
Joint in which the bones are enclosed in a capsule filled with fluid
Most joints in the body are synovial
43
Meniscus
Pad of fibrocartilage that improve the fit between the bones
Increases stability of joint
44
Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle cell.
45
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
a) an elaborate system of membranous tubes that wraps around each myofibril
b) in spots, it's bonded to the T-tubules
c) it's job is to store Ca2+ and release it on demand into the sarcoplasm
46
Motor unit
Refers to a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls
47
Muscle tone
A state of continual partial contraction of resting skeletal or smooth muscle.
48
Actin
a) thin myofilaments
| b) strung together in 2 helical strands to form a single thin filament
49
Troponin
a) keeps the tropomyosin in position
b) has binding sites for Ca2+
c) increased levels of Ca2+ in the muscle cell will ultimately allow the thick and thin to join
50
Tropomyosin
a) a rope-like cord that spirals around the actin chain
| b) in a relaxed myofibril, it covers the active sites on actin so the myosin heads can't bind
51
Bias in the study of anatomy
1. Reliance on non-living material
| 2. Cadavers may not have a "normal" anatomy due to illness and stress
52
Functions of proteins:
a) structure
b) movement
c) transportation
d) immunity
e) communication
f) speed up chemical reaction
53
Cell membrane: function and structure
Functions:
a) keeps interior of cell separate from the external world
b) actively regulates which substances enter/exit the cell (selectively permeable)
c) attaches the cell to other cells or structures
Structure:
a)consists of a phospholipid bilateral, cholesterol, and membrane proteins
54
Functions of integumentary system
a) protection
b) water retention
c) thermoregulation
d) vitamin D synthesis
e) cutaneous sensation
f) nonverbal communication
55
Functions of the skeletal system
a) support
b) movement
c) protective enclosure of viscera
d) blood formation
e) mineral storage
f) electrolyte and acid-base balance
56
Functions of muscular system
a) movement
b) stability
c) communication
d) control of body openings
e) heat production
57
3 functions of the spinal cord
1. Conduction of info
2. Reflexes
3. Locomotion
58
Neurons found in the dorsal horn
Sensory neurons
59
Neurons found in the ventral horn
Motor neurons
60
Difference between gray and white matter
Gray matter-centrally located
-composed mostly of cell bodies and unmyelinated axons
White matter-outer portion
-consists mostly of myelinated axons
61
Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons found?
Dorsal root
62
Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons found?
Ventral root
63
What foramina must the dorsal and ventral roots pass through to exit the vertebral foramina?
Intervertebral foramina
64
Why is the cervical enlargement thick?
Helps service the shoulder/arm
65
Why is the lumbar enlargement thick?
Helps service the hip/leg
66
What's the end of the spinal cord proper called?
Conus medullaris
67
What's the cauda equina?
Refers to the film termin. And the dorsal/ventral roots that extend past the conus
68
What's the filum terminale?
A single thin strand of fibrous tissue that extends from the end of the conus medullaris to the coccyx.
69
Name of the meninges starting from the outermost
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
70
Where is the epidural space?
The area between the dura mater and the vertebral wall
71
What is the epidural space filled with mostly?
Cerebrospinal fluid and adipose tissue that's richly vascularized
72
Into which space would you place the needle to perform a spinal tap?
Subarachnoid space
73
Which meninge contains blood vessels that service the spinal cord?
Pia mater
74
What is meningitis and what can it do?
- inflammation of meninges due to bacterial or viral infection
- can kill neurons if swelling cuts off blood supply
75
The 4 regions of the functional organization of grey matter
1. Somatic sensory-contains sensory neurons for body surfaces and joints
2. Visceral sensory-contains sensory neurons for internal organs
3. Visceral motor-motor neurons for internal organs and glands (activates smooth muscle)
4. Somatic motor-motor neurons that control skeletal muscle
76
What functional regions is the dorsal horn divided into?
Somatic sensory and visceral sensory
77
What functional regions is the ventral horn divided into?
Visceral motor and somatic motor
78
What's a tract?
A bundle of similar axons in CNS
79
What's a nerve?
A bundle of axons in PNS
80
What's an ascending nerve tract?
Carries sensory info to the brain
81
What's a descending nerve tract?
Carry motor commands from the brain to the muscles/glands
82
What types of info do different tracts conduct?
- some conduct pain/temp info
- joint position
- tickle/itch
- conscious control of skeletal muscle
- subconscious control of postural muscles
83
What parts of the spinal cord are likely to be damaged in a patient that has lost motor function?
Ventral root, ventral horn, and descending tracts
84
What parts of the spinal cord are likely to be damaged in a patient that has lost sensation?
Dorsal root ganglion, dorsal root, dorsal horn, and ascending tracts.
85
What is the name of the disorder in which a person's own body attacks it's myelin sheaths?
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
86
What condition results if the spinal cord is cut at the level of C5 or higher?
Quadriplegic because the cervical enlargement is damaged
Can't move upper and lower body
87
What condition results if the spinal cord is cut at the level of T1 to L1?
Paraplegic-can't move lover limbs because the card cannot talk with the brain
88
What condition results if the spinal cord is cut at the level of C6 to T1?
Some use of arms
89
What condition results if the spinal cord is cut at the level below L1?
Some leg use
90
What's spina bifida?
A developmental defect that may affect the spinal cord
-occurs when vertebral arches fail to form completely
91
What determines whether the infant mortality I'll have a lumbar sac profusion or not?
If numerous vertebrae are affected
92
What about the cyst determines the degree of physical impairment the infant will have?
The cyst may contain meninges and CSF, or in extreme cases, parts of the spinal cord
-the more the neural tissue present, the more severe the problem
93
What test is routinely performed to screen pregnant women for risk of spina bifida?
Checking their blood for high levels of alpha-fetoprotein
94
The lack of what vitamin in the mother increases the risk of spina bifida?
Vitamin B
95
How is the brain protected from physical damage?
Carnival bones, meninges, and CSF
-special extensions of the dura mater called the dural folds act like seat belts
96
How is the brain protected from chemical damage?
The blood-brain barrier consists of specialized capillaries in the brain that are relatively impermeable.
-it protects the neurons from many toxic substances in the blood and rapid change in the composition of the blood that would disturb neurons
97
What type of cellular connection is key to the blood-brain barrier?
Tight junctions between the EPI cells
98
What type of substances can get through the BBB?
Gases, glucose, small hydrophobics
99
What's the general pattern of CSF circulation?
CSF flows from lateral ventricles to 3rd to 4th ventricles, then flows into central canal, but most passes into subarachnoid space via tiny holes in the 4th ventricle, this CSF then circulates in later just outside the brain and spinal cord.
100
The production of CSF
Produced by choroid plexuses (a combo of ependymal cells and capillaries)
-the composition of CSF is similar to blood plasma
101
What are the 3 major functions of CSF?
1. Supports the weight of the brain
2. Cushions brain and spinal cord
3. aids in circulation/transportation of nutrients and wastes
102
What is meant by hydrocephalus?
Water on the brain
103
What often causes hydrocephalus?
If a tumor or other obstruction blocks the CSF circulation, it builds up and causes hydrocephalus
104
What is the largest part of the brain made up of the cerebral cortex and basal nuclei?
Cerebrum
105
What is the cerebral cortex
1. Refers to the thin outer layer of the cerebrum
2. Numerous folds greatly increase its surface area
3. Major role in advance neural functions
106
Why does the cerebral cortex have a complex surface?
Allows more neurons to be packed into the cranium
107
What are the 4 lives of the cerebral cortex?
1. Occipital lobe-play important role in processing visual info
2. Temporal lobe-processes auditory and olfactory info
3. Parietal lobe-separated from the frontal lobe by the central sulcus; processes sensory info from the surface of the body and joint position; contains taste cortex
4. Frontal lobe-voluntary motor activity; speech; touch
108
What goes on in the primary somatosensory cortex?
- Each region within it receives sensory info from a specific part of the body
- When stimulated, you become consciously aware of the location and intensity of touch, temp, pressure, and pain
- Sensory input from the left side of the body projects to the right somatosensory cortex and vice-versa
- In turn, the somatosensory cortex sends sensory info to other parts of the brain for further processing
