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Cognitive 1 > Definitions for Exam > Flashcards

Definitions for Exam Flashcards

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1
Q
  • Electromagnetic spectrum:
A

is a continunum of electromagnetic energy that is produced by electric charges and is radiated by waves

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2
Q
  • Rods and cones
A

are the visual receptors in the retina that contain visual pigment.

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3
Q

Cornea

A

The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber.

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4
Q

The crystalline lens

A

is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina.

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5
Q

The pupil

A

is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to strike the retina.[1] It appears black because light rays entering the pupil are either absorbed by the tissues inside the eye directly, or absorbed after diffuse reflections within the eye that mostly miss exiting the narrow pupil.

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6
Q

The fovea centralis

A

is a small, central pit composed of closely packed cones in the eye.

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7
Q
  • accommodation:
A

change in the lens´s shape that occurs when ciliary muscles at the front of the eye tighten and increase the curvature of the lens so that it thickens

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8
Q
  • presbyopia:
A

gradual decrease in accommodate ability due to hardening of the lens with age and weaker ciliary muscles

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9
Q

Myopia or nearsightedness -

A

Inability to see distant objects clearly

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10
Q

The retina

A

is the third and inner coat of the eye which is a light-sensitive layer of tissue. The optics of the eye create an image of the visual world on the retina (through the cornea and lens),

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11
Q

Refractive myopia

A

Cause 1 for myopia: cornea or lens bends too much light

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12
Q

Axial myopia

A

Cause 2 of myopia: the eyeball is too long

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13
Q

Hyperopia or farsightedness -

A

inability to see nearby objects clearly

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14
Q

Visual pigment

A

A light-absorbing compound in the photoreceptor cells of the retina that converts light energy into a nerve impulse that is passed from the receptor cells to the optic nerve.

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15
Q
  • Transduction
A

is the transformation of one form of energy into another form of energy – which occurs in the rods and cons

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16
Q

A photon

A

is an elementary particle, the quantum of all forms of electromagnetic radiation, including light

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17
Q

Maculardegeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa

A

Maculardegeneration

  • Fovea and small surrounding area are destroyed
  • Creates a “blind spot” on retina
  • Most common in older individuals

Retinitis pigmentosa

  • Genetic disease
  • Rods are destroyed first
  • Foveal cones can also be attacked
  • Severe cases result in complete blindness
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18
Q
  • Spectral sensitivity curves:
A

the relationship between wavelength and sensitivity

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19
Q
  • absorption spectrum:
A

a pigment´s plot of the amount of light absorbed vs. the wavelength of the light

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20
Q

Visual acutity

A

refers to be able to see things in details

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21
Q

convergence

A

occurs when a number of neutrons synapse onto a single neuron

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22
Q

Lateral inhibition:

A

inhibition that is transmitted across the retina. In the retina, lateral inhibition is transmitted by the horizontal and amacrine cells

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23
Q

the perception of lightness

A
  • The perception of shades raging from white to grey black
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24
Q

The Herman Grid: phenomena

A

Seeing spots at Intersections

People see an illusion of gray imagines in intersections (kryss) of white areas

explained with Lateral Inhibition

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25
Mach bands
Seeing Borders More Sharply Illusory light and dark bands near a light-dark boarder Explained with lateral inhibition
26
Simultaneous contrast
Phenomena because of lateral inhibition when our perception of the brightness or color of one area is affected by the presence of an adjacent or surrounding area
27
- Receptive field:
area of receptors that affects firing rate of a given neuron in the circuit // the region of the retina that must receive illumination in order to obtain a response in any given fiber (HARTLINE)
28
center-surround organization –
the area in the “center” of the receptive field responds differently to light than the area in the “surround” of the receptive field
29
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
- LNG receives 90 % of the optic nerve fibers (remaining 10 to superior colliculus) and it is a complex structure containing millions of neurons. - The purpose of LNG is to regulate neural info as it flows from the retina to the cortex
30
Sensory code:
representation of perceived objects through neural firing
31
Distributed coding
- pattern of firing across many neurons codes specific objects
32
Specifity coding
- specific neurons responding to specific stimuli
33
Sparse coding
- only a relatively small number of neurons are necessary | - this theory can be viewed as a midpoint between specify and distributed coding
34
Spatial organization
referes to the way stimuli at specific locations in the environment are represented by activity at specific locations in the nervous system
35
Retinotopic map
Shows that locations on the cortex corresponds to locations on the retina
36
–  Cortical magnification
– a small area of the fovea is represented by a large area on the visual cortex
37
location columns:
perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, so that all of the neurons within a location column have their receptive fields at the same location as on the retina
38
Inverse projection problem:
an image on the retina can be caused by infinite number of objects, and this problem involves starting with the retinal image and extending rays out from the eye..
39
Viewpoint invariance
– important concept!!) the ability to recognize an object regardless of the viewpoint
40
Perceptual organization
process by which elements in the environment become perceptually grouped to create our perception of objects
41
Segregation
: separating one area or object from another
42
Grouping
visual events are “put together” into units or objects
43
- Sence:
a view of a real-world environment that contains 1. Background elements 2. Multiple objects that are organized in a meaningful way relative to each other and the background
44
Regularities in the environment
- Characteristics of the environment such as it, which occurs frequently
45
Regularities in the environment
- Characteristics of the environment such as it, which occurs frequently
46
• Oblique effect
– people perceive horizontals and vertical more easily than other orientations
47
• Uniform connectedness
– objects are defined by areas of the same color
48
- semantic regularities:
the characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes
49
- Binocular rivalry:
the observer perceives either the left-eye image or the right-eye image, but not at the same time
50
Attention
- The process of focusing on specific objects while ignoring others
51
Overt attention
looking directly at the attended object,
52
Covert attention
covert attention: attention without looking (basketball player who looks right but then suddenly throws a dead-on pass to a team mate he was covertly attending to off to the left)
53
Stimulus salience
referes to physical properties such as color, contrast, movement, and orientation that makes that particular object or location conspicuous. Areas of stimuli that attract attention due to their properties
54
spatial attention
attention to specific locations
55
same-object-advantage
Enhancement effect for non-target within the target rectangle – same-object advantage
56
What happens when we attend?
Attention speeds responding to locations and objects, influence appearance, influence physiological responding (attention to objects and locations increase the response in specific areas in the brain, attention can shift the location of a neurone´s receptive field)
57
• Perceptual capacity:
a person has a certain capacity that can be used for carrying out perceptual tasks
58
• Perceptual load:
the amount of a person´s perceptual capacity needed to carry out a particular perceptual task
59
- Illusory conjunctions:
features that should be associated with an object become incorrectly associated with each another
60
- Focused attention stage:
features are bound into a coherent perception
61
- pre-attentive stage:
objects are analyzed into separate features they exists independently of each other
62
optic flow
provides us with info about how rapidly we are moving and where we are headed.
63
gradient flow
1. Optic flow is more rapid near the moving observer (indicated by long arrows). The different speed of flow – fast near the observer and slower farther away, is called the gradient flow
64
illusory motion
- Illusory motion perception of motion when there actually is none (apparent, induced, motion affereffects)
65
Apparent movement
- stationary stimuli are presented in slightly different locations
66
• Induced motion:
motion of one object (usually a large one) causes a nearby stationary object (usually smaller) to appear to move. (small moon, big clouds move past, looks like moon is moving)
67
motion afferent
• Motion aftereffect - Observer looks at movement of object for 30 to 60 seconds. - Then observer looks at a stationary object. - Movement appears to occur in the opposite direction from the original movement. - The waterfall illusion is an example of this. (look at waterfall, then look away, its in the side sight, looks like rocks and grass also moves)
68
- Reflectance curves:
plots of percentage of light reflected for specific wavelengths
69
- Chromatic colors or hues:
objects that preferentially reflect some wavelengths called reflectance (some wavelength reflected more than others – determine the objects color)
70
- Achromatic colors:
contain no hues (white, black, and gray tones) (light is reflected equally across the spectrum)
71
¥ Monochromat
person who needs only one wavelength to match any color
72
¥ Dichromat
person who needs only two wavelengths to match any color
73
¥ Anomalous trichromat
needs three wavelengths in different proportions than normal trichromat
74
¥ Unilateral dichromat
trichromatic vision in one eye and dichromatic in other
75
- Monocular cues | Pictorial cues-
Pictorial cues- sources of depth information come from 2-D images, such as pictures • Occlusion: when one object partially covers another • Relative height:– objects below the horizon that are higher in the field of vision are more distant objects above the horizon lower in the visual field are more distant • Relative size: when objects are equal size, the closer one will take up more of your visual field • Perspective convergence: parallel lines appear to come together in the distance • Familiar size: distance info based on our knowledge of object size * Atmospheric perspective: distance object are fuzzy and have blue tint • Texture gradient: equally spaced elements are more closely packed as distance increases • Shadows: indicate where objects are located (enhance 3-D of objects)
76
- Oculomotor cues
are based on sensing the position of the eyes and muscle tension. They are created by convergence and accommodation.
77
- cue approach to depth perception
How do we get from the flat, two-dimensional image on the retina to the three-dimensional perception of the scene. Cue approach to depth perception tries to explain this. - This approach focuses on information in the retinal image that is correlated with depth in the scene
78
- Auditory space:
surrounds an observer and exists wherever there is sound
79
- Binaural cues:
location cues based on the comparison of the signals received by the left and right ears
80
- Interaural time difference (ITD):
difference between the times sounds reach the two ears
81
- Interaural level difference (ILD):
difference in sound pressure level reaching the two ear
82
- Monaural cue
– uses info from one ear - The primary monaural cue for localization is called a spectral cue, because the info for localization is contained in differences in the distribution (or spectrum) of frequencies that reach each ear from different locations. These differences are caused by the fact that before the sound stimulus enters the auditory canal, it is reflected from the head and within the various folds of the pinnae
83
precedence effect:
we perceive the sound as coming from the source that reaches our ear first
84
tactile acuity
the ability to detect details on the skin
85
Frequency
the number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat
86
Amplitude
the size of the pressure change difference in pressure between high and low peaks of wave
87
Decibel
* Perception of amplitude is loudness | * Decibel (dB) us used as the measure of loudness
88
Hertz
- Frequency – the number of cycles within a given time period • Measured in Hertz (Hz) – 1 Hz is one cycle per second
89
- Loudness
is the perceptual quality most closely related to the level or amplitude of an auditory stimuli
90
- Pitch
– the perceptual quality we describe as high and low
91
- Timbre
– all other perceptual aspects of a sound besides loudness, pitch, and duration

Cognitive 1 (1 decks)

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