Democracy And Participation Flashcards

Question

Significant roles of party conventions (2)

Answer 1

1. SELECT THE PRESIDENTIAL AND VICE-PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATES FOR THE PARTY: Delegates vote to decide who is the presidential nominee. The rules of each party require that a candidate gains more than 50 per cent of delegates. If no candidate achieves this, a brokered convention takes place requiring more rounds of voting. 2. DECIDE THE POLICY PLATFORM: Delegates debate and vote to determine the policy of the party (and therefore the candidate) for the presidential election. The convention takes place over several davs allowing for detailed policy debate.

Answer 2

TO ACT AS PUBLICITY FOR THE CANDIDATE: Conventions mark the start of the campaign and are a key part of the process. The winning candidate can sell their message to the public, often through attacks on the other party, stage-managed speeches by other politicians and endorsements by celebrities. The choice of state is also important: party conventions are ollen held in swing states. TO REUNITE THE PARTY: Conventions can be very important for parties after the divisive primary process. The battle between candidates from the same party can be put aside. Losing candidates often give speeches endorsing the winner. This can create positive publicity and help win the election. TO RALLY PARTY ACTIVISTS: Conventions are attended and watched by party activists who are crucial in helping a candidate win. They organise events, contact voters and raise funds. A good convention will address these people, as well as the general public, to thank and enthuse them.

Answer 3

July 18-21, Ohio (a state won by Trump) Many prominent Republicans did not attend. Trump gained endorsements from some losing primary candidates, such as Chris Christie and Ben Carson, who spoke at the convention. Melania Trump gave a speech, but was accused of plagiarising a speech by Michelle Obama. Ted Cruz's speech was perhaps the most remarkable as he used it to snub Trump. Rather than giving an endorsement, Cruz urged voters to 'vote your conscience’. The official party platform opposed gay marriage. However, Peter Thiel, PayPal's co-founder, gave a speech on the importance of economic strategy, saying issues of who should use which bathroom should not dominate their thinking. He was the first Republican convention speaker to refer to his homosexuality. Trump's final-night speech appealed to his populist base, talking about immigration and his proposed wall at the Mexican border, terrorism and withdrawal from trade deals. He pledged to protect LGBT rights from a 'hateful foreign ideology. Some pollsters reported a 3-4% bounce in ratings. Final night broadcast audience: 34.9 million

Answer 4

July 25-28, Pennsylvania (a state won by Trump) A united convention with progressives such as Warren and Sanders giving highly supportive speeches. Barack Obama, Michelle Obama and Bill Clinton also gave speeches. Sanders* team was given a role in drafting the party platform. Some Sanders supporters organised protests, accusing the DNC of bias against Sanders in both the primaries and planning of the convention The convention made use of music stars including Paul Simon, Alicia Keys, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga. A rule change was adopted to reduce the role of 'superdelegates'. The Sanders team wanted superdelegates to be bound to public voting, but a compromise meant that about two-thirds of superdelegates are bound to stale results. Clinton's final-night speech focused on her experience, judgement and compassion based on experience. Clinton prioritised job creation, appealing to Trump's key demographic support, as well as climate change and college affordability. She also attacked 'little men' like Trump. Final night broadcast audience: 33.7 million

Answer 5

Article ll of the Constitution outlines the need for the president to be elected every four years wing an electoral college, with the electorate in all states voting on the same day. The Founding fathers feared popular sovereignty, so they created the electoral college to act as a filter or check in public opinion.

Answer 6

Each state has a value of electoral college votes (ECV) based on the number of Congresspersons plus the number of Senators (in other words, +2) for that state. In addition, the 23rd amendment gives Washington DC three ECV. •Candidates compete on a state-by-state basis, with the winner receiving all the electoral college votes in that state. All states use a winner-lakes-all system (even though the Constitution lets states decide how to allocate ECV). • To win the presidency a candidate requires more than 50 per cent of ECV: 270 of the 538 votes available. " The ECV is not simply a points-based system. In each state, the ECV number represents the number of delegates (or electors) who are selected. The system is based on a respect for the principle of federalism, with voting taking place in each state and smaller states being protected. as they are over-represented by the allocation of ECV.

Answer 7

larger states have a larger number of delegates, although this is not proportional to population. The Constitution says that the value of each state is equal to the number of Congresspersons plus the number of Senators. The 538 delegates who make up the electoral college vote to decide who the president will be. Most states require their delegates to vote according to state opinion, but 21 states make no such requirement. Maine and Nebraska use a winner-takes-all system, but two of their ECV are allocated to the dinner of the whole state, and further ECV are awarded to the winner in each district within the state.

Answer 8

• If no candidate wins an absolute majority of electoral votes, the Constitution states that it is up to the House of Representatives to choose the president. Each state receives one vote. Therefore the representatives of each state must first decide between themselves who they support, and then they would vote as one. Thus, the winner would require an absolute majority of 26 or more out of the 50 votes. • If no candidate wins an absolute majority of electoral votes, the vice president is chosen by the Senate. Each Senator gets one vote, and an absolute majority is necessary: 50 per cent +1 vote. •Only twice in the history of the country has a candidate not received an absolute majority of electoral votes: in 1800 and in 1824

Answer 9

There are 21 states with no requirement that the electors follow public voting, so some delegates occasionally vote contrary to the wishes of the people. This has happened in the majority of elections since 1960, although it has never changed a result. In 2016 there were seven rogue delegates. Clinton lost five delegates who should have voted for her; three of those votes went to Colin Powell, a Republican politician, while Bernie Sanders and Faith Spotted Eagle - a Native American activist - received one each.

Answer 10

the number of parties that have a realistic chance of forming government within a political system.

Answer 11

A party system refers to the number of parties that have a realistic chance of forming a government within a political system. It is easy to argue that the United States is a two-party system, but there has been much debate about the extent to which each partv works as a collective unit. Parties are so weak, it is argued, that they are not key actors within the political system. The two-party system can easily be seen in the dominance of the Democratic and Republican Parties at all levels. All modern presidents have been Democrats or Republicans, and third parties typically have no seats in Congress. The 2016 elections were entirely dominated by two parties - there are only two parties in Congress; there are no third-party governors. Despite declaring himself to be an Independent, Sanders stood as a Democrat in the 2016 presidential primaries, caucused with Democrats in Congress, attended Democrat meetings and worked with Democrat leaders.

Answer 12

• THE SPOILER EFFECT: When a third-party candidate helps to prevent one of the Democratic or Republican Party from winning. In 2000, the Green Party candidate, Ralph Nader, may have prevented Al Gore (the Democratic nominee) from winning the presidency against Bush by taking votes away from Gore. If Gore had won Florida he would have won the presidency but lost the state by just 537 votes. Nader, whose supporters were much more likely to support Gore than Bush, received 97,000 votes. • INFLUENCING THE POLICY OF THE DEMOCRATIC OR REPUBOICAN PARTIES: The last third-party candidate to receive significant votes for the presidency was Ross Perot in 1992 and 1996. While he failed to win the presidency, his popular economic policy of a balanced budget was embraced by Republicans and accepted by President Bill Clinton, with Perot's policy being successfully executed. • INFILTRATING THE TWO MAIN PARTIES, using primaries to gain prominence within a party: Arguably, President Trump is an example of a successful third-party candidate, using the Republican primaries to run under their banner, even though the Republican establishment opposed his bid.

Answer 13

hthe past ten presidential elections where the incumbent is in the race, only three presidents have list. One of these, Ford, is a special case, as he rose to office as vice president to the discredited President Nixon, who resigned as a result of the Watergate scandal. This leaves Carter and Bush Snr § recent incumbent losers. Presidents Reagan, Clinton, George W. Bush and Obama each secured two election victories. In the last 57 US presidential elections, 32 have involved incumbents and 22 of those candidates have won - a win rate of 68.7 per cent. Thereis evidence, then, that it is beneficial to be in office when challenging for the presidency. Tiehistory of US presidential elections suggests that incumbency advantage exists, but it is not a istion predictor of victory, as Table 1.2 shows. Presidents can and do exploit the powers of their fire to increase their prospects for re-election, but a number of other factors influence the result, such as the personality, character and personal history of candidates, their ideologies and policies. The pected events can also tip the election in favour of one candidate over another.

Answer 14

-Executive control and experience -Name recognition and media attention -Electoral resources and experience -Lack of primary challenge

Answer 15

Advantage: Presidents can bring benefits to key groups and swing states or make popular policy shifts before an election. In 2011, Obama announced the main withdrawal of troops from Afehanistan. He could claim a major success in the killing of Osama bin Laden in 2011. In office, he rewarded key voting blocs, such as Hispanics, with executive orders on immigration and the appointment of the first Hispanic Supreme Court justice. Mitt Romney could do none of this. Limit: Being in the White House can be double-edged. Presidents can receive praise, but also blame when things go wrong. Obama had to counter accusations of leadership failure over neattr care reform. The failing economy under President George H.W. Bush and his subsequent willingness to compromise on his famous campaign promise (Read my lips: no new taxes) helped his demise.

Answer 16

Advantage: Presidents can attract publicity and sell their message. The Rose Garden strategy, in which the president addresses the nation, highlights the importance of the incumbent's work. Obama's speech on the death of US officials in Benghazi in 2012 highlighted his role as commander in chief at a time of great national signiticance. Limit: Others can exploit the media. Presidential television debates allow challenpers to impress on voters their advantages over a president. Reagan put Carter in his place in a television debate performance, asking the audience if they were better off than they were four vears ago, and commenting 'There you go again’.

Answer 17

Advantage: The incumbent has an established campaign team with a proven track record. Incumbents also typically outspend their opponents. A rare exception was in 1992 when Clinton outspent the incumbent Bush. Here, however, it was Clinton the challenger who won the election Limit: Money does not guarantee success. Jeb Bush raised record sums in the 2016 Republican primaries, but still lost. Clinton outspent Trump in 2016. Also popularity may raise money, not the other way around. Perhaps Obama raised more than Romney because he was more popular.

Answer 18

Advantage: Incumbent presidents do not usually face a primary challenge. Challengers often face a long, bitter and expensive battle io which they are attacked by members of their own party. Romney faced this in 2012 when one of his dereated opponents, Ron Paul, continued to attack Romney at the party convention Limit: If incumbents do face primary challenges, this can be a bad omen for presidential bids. In 1992, George H.W. Bush won a primary challenge, but lost the election. Primaries may give a challenger the opportunity to show political strength and to take media focus away from the incumbent president

Answer 19

Campaign finance refers to the funding of election campaigns. Expenditure can come from individuals, interest groups and businesses who are donating to campaions. as well as the money spent by parties and candidates to try to ensure electoral victory. it can also include expenditure ov other oreanisacions sucn as incerest groups and corporacions that is no donated to a candidate but is spent, usually in the form of publicity, by that group to influence the outcome of elections. Candidates raise large amounts of money in order to run an effective campaign, with most of this money being spent on advertising. Money is also spent on an expensive campaign team, including technology advice and support. Without high levels of spending it is extremely difficult for a candidate to compete against other, better funded candidates.

Answer 20

h McCutcheon V FEC 2014, the Supreme Court struck down limits on individual campaign contributions, ruling that federal limits on combined donations to candidates, parties and Political Action Committees were an unconstitutional infringement on free speech. Chief Justice John Roberts ruled that congress may not... regulate contributions simply to reduce the amount of money in politics, or to restrict the political participation of some in order to enhance the relative "fluence of others'

Answer 21

a body that raises and spends money in order to elect or defeat electoral candidates, with a donation limit of $5,000 per candidate, per election.

Answer 22

-National parties -Presidential candidates -Super PACs

Answer 23

•excessive influence of major donors •secrecy surrounding who is donating and receiving cash • Inequality of expenditure between candidates or parties.

Answer 24

The two major regulations on presidential elections are the Federal Election Campaign Act (1974) and the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (known also by its sponsors, The McCain-Feingold Act) 2002. This was followed by the Citizens United v Federal Election Commission ruling in 2010.

Answer 25

Places legal limits on campaign contributions - a private individual can only donate $2,700 and a group can only donate $5,000 to en individual candidate. • Creates a maximum expenditure limit for each candidate in the presidential election. " Requires candidates to disclose sources of campelgn contributions and campaign expenditure. * Created federal funding of presidential and primary elections, which works on a matching funds bass (for every dollar a candidate raises, they are given a dollar by the federal government). To qualify a party must receive 5 per cent or more of the vote in the previous election. • Created Political Action Committees. A PAC has to be created by any group wanting to donate money to a campaign. Businesses and interest groups create a PAC that is legally registered with the Federal Blection Commission (FEC), a six-member bipartisan committee to oversee tinance rules.

Answer 26

cash contributed to a political party with no limits attached to the amount that can be received.

Answer 27

-Soft money -Supreme Court -The end of federal funding

Answer 28

Soft money is money donated (by interest groups or individuals) or spent (by parties or candidates) that could not be regulated under the law. Loopholes allowed for continued donations or spending without regulations. Business or interest groups spend money on campaign advertising for or against a candidate, without directly donating money to a candidate's campalgn, for example.

Answer 29

Various Supreme Court rulings, often based on the 1st amendment, undermined legislation, making it harder to restrict donations and expenditure. For example, the restrictions cover funding of candidates, but not funding of parties. A party can spend money supposedly for the purposes of party building and voter education, but in fact use this to support a candidate. The Supreme Court also decided that the candidate's own money was exempt from restrictions

Answer 30

Candidates became increasingly effective at raising money. In 2000 George W. Bush raised more than the campaign limit (approximately $120 million) without using federal funds. By rejecting federal funds he was not constrained by campaign expenditure limits. This made it much harder for Al Gore, who took matching funds, to compete. In 2004 Bush repeated the feat against Kerry, who took matching funds. 2012 was the first election when neither candidate accepted matching funds; this was repeated in 2016.

Answer 31

The creation of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002, which: •banned soft-money donations to national parties (all money raised or spent was now subject to federal limits) •said that soft-money donations to local parties could not be used to support federal candidates, but only for genuine party-building activities •said that issue adverts could not be funded directly by unions or corporations •said that issue adverts mentioning a candidate's name could not be shown within 60 days of an election, or 30 days of a primary, unless approved by one of the candidates, with money spent being covered by spending regulations.

Answer 32

•the ability of groups to find loopholes (soft money) •the 1st amendment and the ideological balance of the Supreme Court in striking down key provisions •the lack of legislation on the issue, which occurs both because it is difficult to pass legislation through Congress and perhaps due to unwillingness for politicians to regulate themselves • the difficulty in amending the Constitution to regulate elections, such as Sanders' failed 'Democracy for all' amendment.

Answer 33

Committees, which raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose political candidates, but without directly donating or coordinating with these candidates.

Answer 34

Super PACs are criticised for encouraging: • inequality of funding • negative campaigning • excessive inflence of major donors

Answer 35

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002 was dealt a major blow with the Citizens United v Federal Election Commission ruling in 2010, which struck down key parts of the legislation. The 5-4 ruling declared that the BRA infringed 1st amendment rights. This gave rise to new organisations set up solely to influence electoral outcomes without directly working with or donating to a candidate. These 'Super PACs' raise funds from individual and group donors and spend this mainly on campaign advertising, without any campaign finance restrictions. Super PACs are typically created to support a particular presidential candidate. Since the 2010 mid-term congressional elections, campaigns have been dominated by these organisations. Opensecrets.org reported that by 2016 there were 2398 Super PACS, raising over $1.5 billion during that year's elections.

Answer 36

Right to Rise was actually created by Jeb Bush, who raised funds for it until he declared his candidacy, when control was passed to Mike Murphy, a former political adviser to Mitt Romney. The Super PAC was also criticised for focusing negative advertisements mainly on the perceived main rival, Marco Rubio, rather than on now-President Donald Trump.

Answer 37

The two main parties in the United States are weak, in the sense that: •they lack strong leadership, which can create party unity • they tend to have a great diversity of views and policies. This has led some to claim that parties have a limited role in United States politics, which is better viewed as a battle of individuals who use party labels. Another view emphasises the importance of factions within parties and the rivalry between them. These factions show the overlap between the two parties, with liberal Republicans sharing common ground with conservative Democrats.

Answer 38

MODERATES: Sometimes known as centrists, moderate Democrats identify with centrism and compromise. It is typically the areas of the economy and welfare in which these moderates take a middle-ground approach. Moderate Democrats are more willing than others to end or reduce government-sponsored nitiatives, as indicated by their support for welfare reform and tax cuts. On moral issues, there are treas where they may accept limitations to civil liberties to an extent that liberal Democrats would not. This might include greater restrictions on abortion or the acceptance of anti-terror laws. This faction was organised around the Democratic Leadership Council, created in 1985 as a reaction o a second defeat in presidential elections to Ronald Reagan. They argued that a more moderate pproach was needed to gain electoral success. They became more important in the 1990s as Democrats tried to overcome several presidential election defeats. While the group dissolved in 2011, moderates represent the dominant force in the Democratic Party. Many members of Congress hold moderate views, and recent Democratic presidential Candidates all reflect the moderate wing. Obama did not fit easily into either wing of the party, but there was a lot of evidence of his moderate approach, such as his willingness to compromise on health care reform and the federal budget. LIBERALS/PROGRESSIVES: Liberals, or progressives, represent the more radical, left- wing elements of the party. Liberals are inore determined in using the federal government to achieve social justice, by providing welfare, health and education for those who are disadvantaged and by increasing taxes on the wealthy. They support more government intervention in the economy and less intervention in deploying the American military abroad. Liberals generally supported Obama, while at times feeling frustrated by him. They have been the faction most critical of the Republican Party, and most supportive of social and economic equality. The more liberal elements of the party pushed Obama to reject the Trans-Pacific Partnership and reject certain Republican budget agreements in order to protect welfare expenditure. For example, Senator Elizabeth Warren, a leading liberal Democrat, publicly criticised Obama on issues including TPP, which she attacked for strengthening a system rigged to favour corporations over workers. Liberal Democrats have often opposed military intervention and were pleased to have Obama as their president, given his anti-Iraq War views. However, they opposed Obama on a number of defence issues, with 85 House Democrats opposing plans for the United States to arm Syrian rebels. CONSERVATIVES: Conservative or 'Blue Dog' Democrats are a dying breed. The Democratic Party was once very conservative, with an influential Southern wing dating back to the end of slavery after the Civil War (1861-1865). While this changed, there remains a viable conservative wing of the Democratic Party, Blue Dogs are conservative on moral issues, such as religion and guns, while disagreeing with the Republican Party's conservative views on trade and tax. In 2015, 47 House Democrats voted in favour of a Republican-led measure to have additional screening of Iraqi and Syrian refugees, despite Obama's opposition. Despite the apparent demise of conservative Democrats, some progressives view Hillary Clinton as one. The Huffington Post ran an article stating that there was a moderate Republican in the 2016 primaries but she was running in the Democratic party.

Answer 39

an ultraconservative religious response to the sexual revolution, promoting family values, opposing abortion and the 1973 Roe v Wade judgment, same-sex marriage, civil partnerships and non discrimination laws

Answer 40

SOCIAL CONSERVATIVES: Social or moral conservatives support traditional norms and values as part of the religious right. They focus on morality according to their religious beliefs (mainly Protestant and Evangelical Christianity). Social conservatives generally have a negative view of illegal immigration and oppose gay rights and abortion rights. On the economy and foreign affairs, they tend to support the official conservative Republican platform. This faction has grown to be a dominant force in the Republican Party, with a huge rise in support from Evangelicals. The rise of social conservatism can be seen in Congress. In 2003, an overwhelming majority of Republicans supported the ban on partial-birth (late-term) abortion, and in 2016 only a fev Republicans voted for the gay-rights legislative amendment. The failure of an immigration reform bill in 2013 could also be seen as a success for social conservatives. FISCAL CONSERVATIVES: Fiscal conservatives drive a conservative economic agenda, advocating a smaller government, especially one that follows a laissez-faire economic policy. Most fiscal conservatives support the abolition of the estate tax (inheritance tax) and reductions in other tax rates, as well as a cut in federal expenditure. This group became dominant in the 1990s, when Speaker Newt Gingrich led the Contract with America - a manifesto focusing on economic responsibility and a balanced budget. Fiscal conservatism can be seen in the rising influence of the Republicans' Freedom Caucus. The defeat of moderate conservatives by Tea Party candidates in primaries in 2010, 2012 and 2014 helped push the party to the right. This sparked the development of the Freedom Caucus. containing approximately 40 members of the House, which has pushed a conservative fiscal and social agenda with a 'no compromise attitude. It refused to support Obama's economic packages or seek compromise in any way, and prevented moderate and even conservative Republican plans to compromise on legislative deals. In 2017 the Freedom Caucus attempted to exert influence over the Trump presidency by sending him a list of 228 regulations that it wants removed, including environmental regulations, nutrition rules for school meals and corporate regulations. It has largely replaced the Tea Party as the main right-wing faction of the Republican Party. MODERATES: Moderates support traditional conservative economic policies, such as low taxation and small government. However, they are typically more socially liberal than social conservatives - for example, they support civil-rights issues including gay rights and abortion. Moderates will accept higher taxes or more government programmes in order to support greater social harmony. Moderates have gained positions of power in the party. For example, President George W. Bush horrited conservatives with major increases in government expenditure and his push for more lIberal immigration reform. Relative moderates John Boehner and Paul Ryan have resisted attempts by others to push the party further to the right. The most moderate are sometimes referred to as RINOs (Republican in Name Only). Senator Susan Collins of Maine was one of only three Republicans to support Obama's 2009 stimulus package budget. She supports gay rights, and she tried to broker a compromise deal over Obama's plans to increase the federal minimum wage. This RINO faction is more willing to compromise with Democrats in order to allow policy to pass. Moderates are organised into the Main Street Partnership, a caucus created in 1994 as a reaction to the rise of conservative Republicans. Following the 2016 elections, the moderates made up a larger group of congressional politicians than the Freedom Caucus. They have lost power, however, as they have shown a lack of willingness to compromise and build a coalition with moderate Democrats as the two parties have moved further apart. However, their website lists many bills nitiated by their members that have successtullv passed into laur.

Answer 41

President Trump is officially a Republican president, but many aspects of his views and policies put him at odds with the Republican Party - and give him common ground with Democrats. President Trump has no direct political experience, entering the presidential race directly from business and media. He used the Republican primaries to launch a hostile takeover of the party: voters selected a candidate whom most senior Republicans strongly opposed, especially in private. Reince Priebus (then head of the RNC) refused to campaign with him, Paul Ryan initially refused to endorse him, and Senator McCain and Mitt Romney openly attacked the Trump candidacy. Trump's policies are met with both horror and delight by those on the Republican right. His populist attacks on racial minorities and abortion rights please the social conservatives, and his desire to cut financial regulations and reduce corporation tax is welcomed by fiscal conservatives. However, many of his policies are what would be expected from more radical, progressive Democrats, such as opposition to international trade deals like the TPP. In particular, Trump's trillion-dollar infrastructure plan could be seen as the opposite of fiscal conservative traditions. Tump and Speaker Paul Ryan pulled the American Health Care Act (to reform the Affordable Care Act) in March 2017. Trump, despite concerted efforts, was unable to persuade any Democrats or enough Republicans to support the bill. Donald Trump's presidency is likely to have a major impact on both Republican and Democratic factions as congressional politicians work out how o work with him. Importantly, in Congress there is no Trump faction that backs all his policies and will fight for their passage in he legislature. Trump does have loyal Trumpistas, many of whom are ex-members of Congress or people who have left the Capitol join his Cabinet - such as Jeff Sessions, Trump's pick for attorney general. Kevin McCarthy, Majority leader of the House is seen as aley Trump ally in Congress with the two having regular meetings both before and after the presidential election.

Answer 42

Race Religion Gender Education

Answer 43

Here there are some consistent patterns, the most polarised being black voters strongly supporting the Democrats. This core voting group emerged in the 1960s, when Democrat President Johnson created the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act. The Democratic Party has since championed racial-minority causes, supporting measures to end discrimination and give greater opportunities. for many black people the Republican Party is a toxic brand that has slowed the fight for equality. There is also an 'Obama effect, with record black turnouts in 2008 and 2012. In 2012, increased black voter turnout in marginal states made a major contribution to Obama's re-election. The Hispanic vote is more volatile. In 2004 Republican George W. Bush secured 44 per cent of the Hispanic vote, but generally most Hispanic voters support the Democratic Party, because of its stronger stance for equality and against discrimination. With the recent focus on illegal immigration, Democrats have been far more supportive of liberal immigration reform, while Donald Trump's comments have angered many Hispanics. However, many Hispanic voters are social conservatives and support Republican views on abortion and gay marriage. Others have particular reasons for voting Republican, such as Hispanics who fled Castro's communist government and appreciate the party's hardline approach to relations with Cuba. White voters are more evenly'split, although most always select the Republican Party. Even when the Democratic candidate takes the White House, they do not get a majority of the white vote. There are also more general socio-economic policies to consider. For example, statistically racial minorities are likely to be poorer than white people in the US, so are more likely to vote Democrat.

Answer 44

The clearest division here is with Jewish voters, who typically strongly support the Democratic Party. American Jews are usually strongly liberal, sympathising with the less fortunate and with minorities, and support greater government assistance for those with low socio-economic status. Despite issues with Israel and Palestine, Jews are far more likely to say that Muslims in America are Ascriminated against compared to the general population. However, Jews only make up around two per cent of the population. Among Christian Protestants, there is stronger support for the Republican Party, particularly imong white Evangelicals who identify with the strong streak of social conservatism running brough the party. Many Republican politicians, such as Senator Ted Cruz, strongly oppose gay ights and attack immigration reform. Several Republicans take an Evangelical approach, saying Bat God is guiding them and they have a religious duty to influence the political process. Sarah Pain, a former Republican governor, said of the 2016 election: 'No doubt, divine providence played (thuge role in this election... I saw it first-hand!

Answer 45

Each group, men and women, is reasonably evenly split between the two main parties. However, There is a long-standing pattern in which most men support the Republican Party and most women port the Democrats. This is partly for broad ideological reasons: men have a more conservative outlook than women. Women may have a marginal preference for the Democrats because the Democratic Party has done more to fight for women's rights. Typically Democrats supported the ed Equal Rights amendment, with the greatest opposition coming from Republicans. There bipartisan support for the Violence Against Women Act, but it was created and passed under linocratic control of the presidency and Congress in 1994. More recently Obama introduced the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, attempting to secure equal pay for women, which was opposed by almost all Republicans in Congress. The Democratic Party also has significantly more congressional female politicians than the Republican Party.

Answer 46

There is a clear trend in educational voting patterns: the less educated a voter is, the more likely they are to vote Republican. This is counterintuitive, given that lower income groups tend to vote Democrat. However, many people with relatively high incomes do not have a college degree. The tipping point for those below college-level education came in 2016, when Trump won a majority of this group. Trump's populist anti-elitist agenda attracts those who may view those with higher education as part of a liberal elite protecting their own agenda. We won with young. We won with old. We won with highly educated. We won with poorly educated. I love the poorly educated.' Donald Trump 2016 Some people argue that education tends to produce more socially liberal values - such as greater acceptance of different racial groups and religions, and support for civil liberties - so more educated voters are more likely to reject the socially conservative elements of the Republican Party. However, some have argued that there is a tendency for liberals or Democrats to value education more, so they stay in education for longer - so being liberal leads to higher education, not the other way around.

Answer 47

• POLICY GROUPS that attempt to influence a whole policy area (such as the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, or AIPAC) • PROFESSIONAL GROUPS that represent the economic interests of its members (such as the American Medical Association) • SINGLE-INTEREST GROUPS that advocate policy surrounding a limited, specific issue (such as the National Rifle Association).

Answer 48

GROUPS’ RIGHTS ARE PROTECTED: -the US has a strong level of rights protection due to an entrenched, sovereign Constitution which protects rights, even for extremist groups -Some groups have their aims enshrines in the Constitution -The 1st amendment promotes of expression and association -Even extremist groups have protected rights POLITICIANS ARE OPEN TO PERSUASION : -Parties and/party leaders are weak, finding'it hard to control politicians in their party -Groups try to expose/utilise this -Politicians are therefore open to persuasion by interest groups -Individuals In Congress can and do vote against the party line -Individual voting record in Congress is important in elections THERE ARE MANY ACCESS POINTS: -This is caused by the separation of powers and federalism creates many centres of power -Interest groups can choose a receptive institution, failure with one doesn’t mean failure with all ELECTIONS ARE NUMEROUS AND FREQUENT: -There is a huge range of elected offices -interest group money is important in elections (increasingly so since Citizens United v FEC) -ThIs gives a strong opportunity for groups to exploit this and infuence electoral outcomes -Congresspersons and one third of Senators are elected every two years

Answer 49

The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is the largest trade union in the U.S. with 12 million members. It has close links with the Democratic Party, its president, Richard Trumka, visited the White House six times in Obama’s first six months in office and met with Obama in 2016 to lobby over concerns about the Affordable Care Act, a policy it strongly supported. With such a large membership, the group can be very effective at election time, organising volunteers to help influence electoral outcomes. It registered 450,000 new voters in 2012 and made 80 million phone calls during the election campaign. It has also had conflict with the Democratic Party - for example, it strongly opposed Obama's signing of the Trans- Pacific Partnership (TPP). Trumka wrote an open letter to Obama on the issue and publicly criticised him over the deal, saying it threatened US jobs. In 2016 the AFL-CIO campaigned heavily against Trump, focusing on marginal states such as Florida, where they sent out 120,000 copies of an anti-Trump leaflet.

Answer 50

-MEMBERSHIP: An active membership can undertake grassroots lobbying to influence their members of Congress to support or oppose certain measures. Large groups can create an electoral threat to individual politicians. Members are often used at election time to contact potential voters to affect electoral outcomes, including turnout. This often targets swing constituencies or areas where the group knows it has strong support. -MONEY: Strong financial resources allow interest groups to run more effective publicity campaigns. Many interest groups spend huge amounts of money on lobbying, which is expensive in the US. Interest groups also donate money to political campaigns. -CONTACTS: Interest groups try to maximise their political contacts, often employing professional lobbyists who are former politicians or advisers. This creates contacts between some interest groups (especially major corporations) and politicians. A policy network develops in which at least some groups have high levels of influence. -EXPERTISE: Most groups establish expertise in their area, so they can lobby Congress and appeal to the public with greater authority. The importance of the Constitution and the law means that interest groups often employ legal experts to advise on how laws can be changed and provide constitutional lawyers to litigate in support of their cause.

Answer 51

-Publicity -Grassroots activity -Legal methods -Lobbying -Electioneering

Answer 52

Interest groups may use publicity to change public opinion, and may try to influence actual voting behaviour of the public - for example, by contacting potential voters who are likely to support the aims of the group. Interest groups can run advertising campaigns through magazines, billboards or television, or can attract media attention with publicity stunts. For example, the National Rifle Association used television adverts to stop Obama and Congress from passing new gun regulations after the fatal shooting of school children and staff at the Sandy Hook Elementary School in 2012. One NRA television advert called Obama an 'elitist hypocrite', making reference to the fact that the resident's own children had armed guards while at school, while Obama was reluctant to put armed security guards in schools in general.

Answer 53

Members of interest groups (rather than their leaders) can take part in email writing campaigns, demonstrations and direct action. The rise of the internet and social media has made this even easier for the general public. Most interest group websites have a 'take action' section, with model letters and a 'zip code engine"to find the address of someone's Congressperson or Senator. Demonstrations are common even among more powerful interest groups as a show of strength of feeling and to generate publicity, motivating others to act.

Answer 54

Many interest groups use the legal system to promote their cause or interest. Using the law and the Constitution can be powerful, especially to stop certain policies or practices. Some interest groups are strongly supported by the Constitution because it protects their aims. The NRA have had their cause protected in 2nd-amendment (the right to bear arms) Supreme Court cases such as Ov Heller 2008, which ruled that the 2nd amendment gives an individual a right to a gun. The three main ways interest groups can influence the legal process are: • through litigation - initiating a case by taking something to court • through amicus briefs - in which the Supreme Court allows interest groups to provide information during a court case • by influencing Supreme Court nominations - by lobbying the Senate.

Answer 55

Interest groups will often contact and persuade those in power. The separation of powers creates liferent access points, with a range of ways to find a responsive institution. An interest group that falls with one institution may have influence through another. Interest groups often concentrate On moderate or marginal politicians in order to influence legislative outcomes in Congress. Some interest groups even develop legislation or persuade members of Congress to do so. In addition, there are many professional lobbyists. For example, AIPAC wanted to overturn the Iran deal that Obama had successfully negotiated, in which Iran agreed to halt its nuclear program. AIPAC attempted to pass a Senate resolution to block The deal, lobbying key Democrats such as Chuck Schumer (New York). AIPAC despatched 60 activists tohis office to hold a meeting with Schumer, and he later opposed the Iran deal.

Answer 56

Interest groups use elections to gain influence, through publicity, donations or canvassing. Interest groups can use elections to highlight key issues, but often try to influence electoral outcomes, sometimes campaigning for or against particular candidates. One main strategy is to maximise turnout among certain voters This has led to the creation of some interest groups specialising in affecting electoral outcomes, as can be seen in the case study of the League of Conservation Voters.

Answer 57

The LCV is an environmental protection group interested in all aspects of environmental policy. It specialises in affecting electoral outcomes, to hold politicians accountable for the policies they make. It has campaigned to protect legislation such as the Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species Act. The LCV's top priority is climate change, and it works to publicise the negative impact global warming is having on the US (for example, by linking it to the $485 hilllon annual cost of eytreme weather events in the US alone). The CV funds the campaigns of pro-environment politicians, but its trademark campaign is 'The Dirty Dozen' In each election, it selects 12 politicians who it views as posing the biggest threat to the environment. It then campaigns heavily against these 12, running poster, television and internet campaigns to expose connections between them and groups that may want harmful environmental policies. The CV usually chooses more marginal races where it can have a greater impact. In 2012, 11 of the 12 were defeated, and in 2014, seven of the 12 were defeated. However, in 2016 only four of the 12 (including President Trump) were defeated.

Answer 58

• Lobby the president in order to bring about policy/legislative change. • Electioneer to change electoral outcomes and gain influence with candidates. • Publicise issues to generate positive or negative publicity for the president and their policy. •Super PACs are involved in raising funds and generating publicity for or against presidential (and congressional) candidates.

Answer 59

• Lobby congressional leaders or committee chairs especially over specific legislative requirements. • Lobby individual members of Congress, especially using constituents, to support or oppose a bill. • Propose and introduce legislation via a member of Congress. • Electioneer to change electoral outcomes and gain influence with candidates.

Answer 60

• Litigate by taking a case to the Supreme Court, often to challenge presidential action, congressional law or state law. • Lobby the court using an amicus brief. • Attempt to influence Supreme Court nominations by influencing the ratification vote in the Senate.

Answer 61

-PARTICIPATION, PLURALISM: Interest groups let the public get actively involved in US politics and increase their influence over politicians. Interest groups organise demonstrations, direct action and grassroots campaigns. Interest groups also raise awareness of issues and government responses, allowing people to understand key issues and to react. Interest groups add democratic value, partly because of low participation rates in United States elections. Many citizens are fed up with the two-party system, viewing themselves as independents. These people can use interest groups as a way to be involved in the political process. In 2016 the AFL-CIO said that it had used 2000 volunteers to contact six million voters in swing states to deliver an anti-Trump message. -CHECKS ON GOVERNMENT: It can be argued that interest groups enhance democracy by restricting the government. This can help stop government corruption or self-interest, maximising the wishes of the people. Groups can also help force the government to carry out their policy promises. Some groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) specialise in rights protection, encouraging the promotion of liberal democracy. There is an argument that interest groups add little democratic value through checks. There de extensive checks in the system already, particularly through the separation of powers. so democracy is already highly protected from self-interest and abuse of power. Any group can use the system to have their interests considered. The NRA campaigned against Obama's gun laws by arguing that they are protecting individual freedom in the face of a self-interested president. However, much depends on the nature of the group. It could be argued that interest groups dre critical to democracy by protecting individual and minority groups when their rights are threatened. The NAACP protect voting rights by checking politicians who want to change electoral aws to reduce black people's ability to vote. Given concerns over the power of the state to maintain security, especially since 9/11, groups such as the ACLU (see case study below) play an important tole in protecting liberal democracy. -REPRESENTATION: Interest groups represent specific groups or interests in society, promoting their wishes and maximising their power. In particular, they can help represent a group whose interests may Sherwise be overlooked - perhaps because that group is small or is ideologically incompatible with the government. Again, it is possible to argue that interest groups cannot add much democratic value here. High frels of representation already exist as a result of the separation of powers and frequent elections, so interest groups are not needed. However, interest groups may become more important when he party controls the presidency, House, Senate and Supreme Court, as after the 2016 elections. Interest groups can also help overcome the limited representation in the US that results, in part, fin the electoral college system and the use of a majoritarian voting system for Congress.

Answer 62

-VIOLENT AND ILLEGAL ACTIVITY: Some interest groups use violence or break the law as part of their campaign. This can undermine democracy in a number of ways. Firstly, breaking the law is a challenge to representative democracy as laws have been passed using a democratic process. Secondly, violent and illegal activity can restrict the rights of others, limiting individual freedom. Interest groups may cause damage to property or life, attacking a key principle of democratic liberty. When the NAACP occupied the offices of a senior Republican politician in North Carolina, they were disrupting the representative process, arguably undermining democracy. This raises the question of whether illegal activity can ever benefit democracy. Some argue that the actions of the NAACP were promoting democracy by directly challenging laws that were already undermining democratic principles. -RESTRICTION OF ELECTED GOVERNMENT: Unlike politicians, interest groups have no elected mandate, yet they attempt to stop politicians making decisions. This can be seen as undermining the representative process. This is particulatly the case if they prevent those in office from executing policy promises made at election time. When a range of groups, such as health insurance companies and the AARP (an interest group representing retired people that opposed sections of the proposal), lined up to stop Obama passing his Affordable Care ACt - a key aspect of his electoral campaign - this arguably undermined democracy. -INEQUALITY OF REPRESENTATION: Interest groups contribute to the over-representation of minority groups and the marginalisation of other groups. Many argue that power is based on money: those with resources dominate decision-making, ensuring that policies favour that particular group. Professional lobbyists and the revolving door create a closed network of decision-making, magnifying the power of groups that already have political influence. The extent to which interest groups promote democracy can be based on whether they: •promote pluralism, in which all interests in society have some policy influence, and policy is based on a compromise between different interests (even if it is largely based on the majority view) •promote elitism, which is undemocratic, with policy being made in the interest of a small, powerful group or an elite.

Answer 63

The ACLU aims to protect civil liberties, especially those protected by the Constitution. The group has focused on 1st amendment rights of freedom of expression Founded in 1920, it has more than a million members. One of its main methods is litigation, launching court cases to protect individual freedom. In the two weeks after Trump was elected, the ACLU reported a huge increase in membership, with more than 120,000 new members. The group strongly opposes many aspects of Trump's presidency, including Trump's nomination of Senator Jeff Sessions as attorney general. The ACLU takes issue with Sessions' position on LGBT rights, capital punishment, abortion rights, and presidential authority in times of war. Shortly after Trump's victory its website carried a picture of President Trump headed 'See you in court. The ultra-liberal group has provided legal argument for groups regardless of their ideological stance, including the KKK and the Westboro Baptist Church (for example in its 37-page amicus brief in the Snyder v Phelps case 2011, involving homophobic demonstrations at funerals). In 2016 the ACLU litigated on behalf of Suleiman Abdullah Salim, Mohamed Ahmed Ben Soud and Gul Rahman, who were tortured using methods developed by CIA-contracted psychologists James Mitchell and John 'Bruce' Jessen. Rahman died during his torture. The court was told that the CIA was operating on the orders of the president. The lawsuit against the private company is based on US law preventing gross violations of human rights.

Answer 64

John Boehner ran a business before he joined Congress. In 2016, he left his position as the speaker of the House of Representatives, and returned to the private sector, advising Squire Patton Boggs. SPB is one of the most influential professional lobbyists in the United States, with major clients such as Amazon, AT&T, Goldman Sachs and the Turkish government. SPB employs many former politicians and advisers with insider knowledge and contacts with the current Congress. It uses its expertise and connections to influence the legislative process on behalf of its clients. Given the expense of using professional lobbyists, many individuals and interest groups will not be able to afford these services. Politicians' family members often work for - or create - professional lobbyist organisations. The lure of future million-dollar salaries encourages politicians to work closely with these organisations when in office. This brings a significant danger that politicians will work for the interest of themselves, their family and big business, but not the public. Politicians, former politicians working for professional lobbyists and corporations can create apolicy network that strongly influences law-making while excluding other interests. This community of decision-makers often excludes environmental groups, health groups and workers. Evidence for this can be seen in policy outcomes. For example, professional lobbyists working with the gambling industry used their connections with then Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid to add just 54 words to a spending bill in 2015, which saved the industry almost S1 billion in taxes. Despite the Republican Party's emphasis on economic austerity, it is willing to allow such tax cuts, pushed by lobbyists such as David Lugar, son of former Senator Richard Lugar, while cutting expenditure in other areas, such as welfare.

Answer 65

-RESPECTS THE TRADITION OF FEDERALISM: By basing voting in individual states, the Founding Fathers emphasised the importance of states and state identity. Candidates are required to win the support of states. Smaller states are deliberately over-represented to make sure they are not intimidated by larger states; California has 63 times the population of Wyoming but only 18 times the ECV. -PRODUCES A CLEAR WINNER: The winner-takes-all system helps to ensure that one candidate receives more than 50 per cent of the electoral college votes. This gives the elected president greater legitimacy, allowing them to govern more effectively. In 2012, Obama won 51 per cent of the popular vote, but received 332 of the 538 CV - nearly 62 per cent. Even when there is a strong third-party candidate, one candidate typically receives an absolute majority. Despite the strong showing of Ross Perot in 1992 with 18.9 per cent of the popular vote, Clinton received 370 electoral college votes. -PROTECTS LOW-TURNOUT AREAS: States are protected because they have a fixed value. In 2016 Minnesota had the highest turnout (74.2 per cent) and Utah and Hawaii had the lowest (57.7 and 42.5 per cent). Despite this, those who vote in Utah and Hawaii can still have an impact as their ECV values of 4 and 6 remain intact.

Answer 66

-THE LOSER CAN WIN: It is possible for one candidate to get the most votes, but for the other candidate to get elected by winning the most CV. The United States has elected a president who the majority did not support five times in total, twice of those in recent years. President George W. Bush received almost half a million fewer votes than Al Gore in 2000, and in 2016 President Trump was easily beaten by Hillary Clinton, who received almost 3 million more votes. -SMALL STATES ARE OVER-REPRESENTED: Regardless of its size, each state has two Senators, and a minimum of one Congressperson - so a vote in Wyoming has greater value than one in California. This restricts the fundamental democratic principle of political equality. -SWING STATES ARE OVER-REPRESENTED: Most states are normally safe Republican or Democrat states, so the remaining marginal states are the decisive ones - the 'swing' or 'battleground' states. Candidates concentrate time and money on these swing states where winning could give them the ECVs that push them over the 270 mark. This gives the swing states disproportionate influence in selecting the president, and encourages candidates to offer greater political benefits to those states. Non-competitive elections in California and Texas mean that there is little point voting as the result is already decided. This can depress turnout rates.

Democracy And Participation Flashcards

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