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demography Flashcards

(60 cards)

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1
Q

what is demography?

A

the study of population, including factors affecting its size and growth

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2
Q

what four factors affect population?

A
  • births and immigration increase the population
  • deaths and emigration decrease the population
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3
Q

what is natural change in population?

A

the number of births minus the number of deaths.

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4
Q

what is net migration?

A

number of people immigrating into a country, minus the number emigrating from it

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5
Q

how has the UK population grown?

A

37 million in 1901 to 65 million now, predicted 71 million by 2031

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6
Q

what is the main cause for population growth in the uk?

A

natural change rather than net migration

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7
Q

what is birth rate?

A

the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year

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8
Q

how has birth rate been declining?

A

the long-term decline since, in 1900 it was almost 29. By 2014, it had fallen by more than 60% to 12.2

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9
Q

fluctuations in birth rate

A

three baby booms were after both of the world wars, and in the 1960s.
the rate fell sharply after 1970s, rose during 1980s and early 1990s, and then fell until recent increase in 2001.

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10
Q

what are the two measures of birth?

A
  • birth rate
  • total fertility rate
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11
Q

what is total fertility rate?

A

the average number of children a woman will have during her fertile ages (15-44)

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12
Q

what was fertility rate in 1960s baby boom

A

average was 2.95 children per woman

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13
Q

what was fertility rate in 2001

A

fell to an all-time low of 1.63

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14
Q

what was fertility rate in 2014

A

1.83

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15
Q

trends in births

A
  • more women are remaining childless
  • women are having children later, as the average age in now over 30
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16
Q

what are the reasons for fall in birth rate?

A
  • changes in the position of women
  • fall in the infant mortality rate
  • children as an economic liability
  • child-centredness
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17
Q

how have changes in the position of women contributed to falling birth rate?

A
  • increased educational opportunities
  • more women working
  • changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role
  • easier access to divorce
  • easier access to abortion and contraception
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18
Q

how has the fall in infant mortality rate contributed to falling birth rate?

A

number of infants who die before their first birthday per 1000 babies born alive, per year (IFR). in 1900, it was 154, by 2016, it was 4. If infants survive, parents will have fewer of them.

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19
Q

reasons for the fall in infant mortality rate

A

in 1950s, IMR began to fall due to mass immunisation, antibiotics, and improves midwifery and obstetrics.
improved housing, sanitation, nutrition, knowledge of hygiene and child health, and health services for mothers and children

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20
Q

how have children as an economic liability contributed to falling birth rate

A

until late 19th century, children were an economic asset, as they worked from an early age. Now:
- law banning child labour and intro of compulsory schooling mean they remain economically dependent for longer
- changing norms about children’s right to a high standard of living raises their cost
this means parents can’t afford to have a large family.

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21
Q

how has child-centredness contributed to falling birth rate?

A

childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period, leading to a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’. Parents now have fewer children, and lavish more attention and resources on these few.

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22
Q

what are the effects of falling birth rate?

A

dependency ratio- relationship between the size of working population and size of the non-working population.
- children as a large part of the dependent population who are supported by the working population’s earnings and taxes. fewer children reduces the ‘burden of dependency’ on working population.
fewer public services needed, and less money spent on maternity/ paternity leave. however, these also depend on the political decisions as the government can choose to reduce no of schools or have smaller class sizes.

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23
Q

how have the number of deaths been since 1900

A

fairly stable at around 600,000 per year. Fluctuations include 1918 flu epidemic and the two world wars

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24
Q

how has the death rate fallen since 1900

A

number of deaths per 1000 in a year has halved from 19 in 1900 to 8.9 in 2012.
began falling from 1870, continuing until 1930, and rose slightly in 1930s-1940s due to economic depression and WW2. since 1950s, it has declined slightly.

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25
what are the main reasons for fall in death rate
- improved nutrition - medical improvements - public health improvements - other social changes
26
up to 1970, what was 3/4 of the decline in death rate due to?
fall in deaths from infectious diseases e.g. TB, measles, smallpox, diarrhoea, typhoid. This was brought around by the main reasons
27
how has improved nutrition contributed to fall in death rate?
McKeown found better diet accounted for half of the reduction in death rate, by increasing people's resistance to infection
28
how have medical improvements contributed to fall in death rate?
before 1950s, medical improvements played almost no part in reducing deaths from infection. from 1950s, death rate fell partly due to medical factors e.g. vaccinations antibiotics, blood transfusion, better maternity services, creation of NHS 1949
29
how have public health improvements contributed to fall in death rate?
more effective government with power to pass and enforce laws led to improved public health e.g. better housing purer drinking water, cleaner air, laws against adulteration of food, improved sewage disposal
30
how have other social changes contributed to fall in death rate?
- decline of more dangerous manual operations e.g. mining - smaller families reducing transmission of infection - greater public knowledge of the causes of illness - higher incomes
31
what is life expectancy?
how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live
32
how has life expectancy increased since 1900
for babies born in 1900: - male life expectancy was 50 years - female life expectancy was 57 years for babies born in 2013: - male life expectancy was 90.7 years - female life expectancy was 94 years
33
how has falling infant mortality rate affected life expectancy
low life expectancy in 1900 was largely due to high IMR pulling down average expectancy of the population. as IMR fell, life expectancy rose.
34
proof the UK population is ageing
in 1971, average age was 34, it is now nearly 40. by 2031, it will reach 42.6. no. of over-65s equalled no. of under-15s for the first time in 2014
35
main reasons for the ageing population
- increasing life expectancy: people living longer - low infant mortality: babies no longer die in large numbers - declining fertility: fewer young people are being born
36
what are the main social and economic effects of an ageing population?
- public services: older people consume more health and social care services - more one-person pensioner households: account for 1/ every 7 households - rising dependency ratio: non-working old are provided for by those working e.g. taxation. number of retired people raising increases dependency ratio - ageism: old age is socially constructed as a problem, leading to negative stereotyping portraying the old as incompetent and a burden. (contrasts traditional societies where ageing brings higher status)
37
what are policy implications of an ageing population
Hirsch argues that we will need new policies to finance a longer old age, which could be done by paying more in taxes or by raising the retirement age, or both e.g. increase in women's pensionable age from 60 to 65
38
how is old age viewed in modern society?
life is structured into fixed age statuses and age-related identities e.g. pupil, worker or pensioner. identity and status are determined by role in production, so those excluded from production have a dependent status and stigmatised identity.
39
how is old age viewed in postmodern society?
the fixed stages of life course have been broken down, giving individuals a greater choice of lifestyle, whatever their age. consumption, not production, becomes key to our identities. Hunt argues we can choose an identity regardless of age
40
how is there inequality among the old?
class- the middle class have bigger pensions and savings, as well as longer life expectancy gender- women's lower earnings and roles as carers mean lower pension, as well as being subject to sexist as well as ageist stereotyping
41
what is migration?
the movement of people- including internal (within a country) or international. This can affect the size and age structure of the population.
42
nature of migration before the 1980s
there were more people leaving the country than entering it
43
largest immigrant groups to the UK 1900-1940
- Irish - European Jews - people of British descent e.g. Canada and USA very few non-white immigrants
44
immigration during 1950s-1970s
non-white immigrants began to come from the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia
45
immigration in 2011
minority ethnic groups accounted for 14% of the population, with most immigrants to the UK being white Irish and Europeans.
46
restrictions on non-white immigrants
immigration and nationality acts from 1962 to 1990 placed severe restrictions on non-white immigration. by the 1980s , non-whites accounted for barely a quarter of immigrants, as the mainly white EU countries became the chief source of immigrants
47
emigration since 1900
most emigrants have gone to the USA, Canada, Australia, NZ and South Africa
48
main reasons for emigration
- push factors: unemployment, economic recession - pull factors: higher wages, better opportunities
49
how has migration increased
between 2000 and 2013, migration increased by 33%
50
different types of migrants
- permanent settlers - temporary workers - spouses - refugees - asylum seekers some have legal entitlement, whereas, others enter without permission
51
super-diversity in migration
before the 1990s, UK immigrants came from mainly British ex-colonies, whereas, migrants now come from many more countries, with different legal statuses etc. as a given ethnic group may also be divided by culture or religion
52
what class differences between migrants does Cohen distinguish?
- citizens have full rights e.g. voting rights - denizens are privileged foreign nationals e.g. billionaire oligarchs - helots are disposable labour power found in unliked, poorly paid work e.g. illegally trafficked workers
53
the feminisation of migration
almost half of all global migrants are now female, resulting in the globalisation of the gender division of labour. female migrants are given stereotyped roles as carers or providers of sexual services
54
migrant hybrid identities
may develop hybrid identities from two or more different sources, where they find others accuse them of not fitting in
55
migrant transnational identities
Eriksen notes globalisation creates back-and-forth movements of people through networks, rather than permanent settlement in another country. instead of seeing themselves as belonging to one country, they develop transnational identities. modern technology allows them to sustain global ties without having to travel
56
how is migration linked to policies
states have policies to control immigration and deal with cultural diversity. immigration policies have also become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies
57
what is assimilation
policies aiming to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture
58
what is multiculturalism
accepting that migrants may with to retain a separate cultural identity, but in practice, acceptance may be limited to superficial differences e.g. food (shallow diversity) rather than more fundamental ones e.g. veiling of women (deep diversity)
59
Castles
argues assimilationist policies are counter-productive, as they mark out minority groups as 'other'. minorities then respond by emphasising their difference, increasing the hosts' suspicion of them, and making assimilation less likely
60
how does assimilation make a divided working class
assimilationist ideas may encourage workers to blame migrants for problems such as unemployment, benefiting capitalism by dividing the working class.

sociology- family (6 decks)

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