Demography

Question 1

Birth rate

Answer 1

There has been a long term decline in the number of births since 1900s-28.7 but in 2014 it had fallen to 12.2.

Question 2

is it set?

Answer 2

No it fluctuates, in 1918 and 1945 after the two world wars there were baby booms. There was a third baby boom in 1960 followed with a decline in births in the 1970’s.

Question 3

Determining birth rates

Answer 3

1- Portion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44)
2- How fertile they are (how many children they have)

Question 4

Total fertility rate

Answer 4

The average number of children a woman will have during their fertile years.
UK’s: 1.63-2001 and 1.82 in 2014.
Peak in 1964 - 2.95 (baby boom)

Question 5

Reasons for changes in fertility

Answer 5

-Women are remaining childless than in the difference
-Woman are postponing having children: average age of giving birth is 30. ( women over 30/40 are less fertile)

Question 6

Reasons for the decline in birth rates

Answer 6

1) Changes in women’s position
2) Decline in infant mortality rate
3)Children are now an economic liability
4) Child centredness

Question 7

1) Changes in women’s position

Answer 7

Changes in the 20th century;
- Legal equality with men
- Increased educational opportunities
- More women in paid employment ( equal pay act)
- Changes in attitudes to family life and a woman’s role
- Easier access to divorce
- Access to abortion and contraceptives, giving women more control over their fertility

Question 8

Harper (2012)

Answer 8

Education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth rates. It has led to a change in mind st among women, resulting in fewer children. Educated women are more likely to use family planning and they see a life outside of the traditional role of housewife and mother.
Many postpone having children or choose not to have children in order to pursue a career.
Once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation, culture norms of family size change.

Question 9

Decline in infant mortality rates

Answer 9

IMR - Measures the number of babies that die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.
Fall in IMR leads to a fall in birth rates.

Question 10

Harper

Answer 10

This is because, if many infants are dying parents are having more to replace the ones they lost.
In contrast if babies survive parents will have less.

Question 11

IMR UK

Answer 11

1900 - 154 (15% of babies died within the first year)
1950 - 30
2012 - 4

Question 12

During the first half of the 20th century the UK’s IMR began to decline because..

Answer 12

• Improved housing conditions and better sanitation. This reduced infectious diseases in which infants were more susceptible due to their weakened immune system.
• Better nutrition
• Improved services for mothers and children, such as antenatal and postnatal clinics.

Question 13

Doctors role

Answer 13

• Mass immunisation against childhood diseases such as whooping cough, measles.
• The use of antibiotics to fight infection
• Improved midwifery techniques

Question 14

Evaluation

Answer 14

Brass and Kabir (1978) The trend to smaller families didn’t begin in rural areas where the IMR first began to fall but rather in urban areas where the IMR remained higher for longer.

Question 15

3) Children are now an economic liability

Answer 15

In the 19th century children were seen as economic assets to their parents as they could be sent out to work from an early age to earn an income.
- Laws: Banning child labour; introducing compulsory schooling and raising the school leaving age meaning children are economically dependent on their parents for longer.
- Changing family norms; What children expect from their parents in material terms mean the cost of bringing up children has risen.

Question 16

4) Child centredness

Answer 16

Childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual’s life. Parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few.

Question 17

2001 increase in birth rates

Answer 17

One reason is the increase in immigration, mothers from outside the UK have higher fertility rates than those born inside the UK. Babies born to mothers from outside the UK for 25% of all births in 2011.
Predicted the annual number of births the annual number of births to be constant at 800,000 per year.

Question 18

Effects - the family

Answer 18

Smaller families = women are more likely to be free to go to work thus leading to dual earner households.

Question 19

Effects - the dependency ratio

Answer 19

It’s the relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of the non - working or dependent part of the population.

Question 20

What are the effects ?

Answer 20

The earnings, savings and taxes of the working population support the dependent population. If there is a decline in children there are less people to support reducing the burden of dependency. However in the long term this means that fewer adults in the working population and more dependent elderly that need support.

Question 21

Vanishing children

Answer 21

Childhood becomes lonelier and fewer children will have siblings. More childless adults means fewer voices speaking up for children’s interest.

Question 22

Deaths rates UK

Answer 22

In 1900s, the death rate stood at 19, whereas by 2012 it had more than halved to 8.9.

Question 23

Reasons for the decline in the deaths

Answer 23

Tranter (1996) over 3/4ths of the decline in the death rate from about 1850 to 1970 was due to the fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases such as measles, smallpox, and above all TB.

Question 24

How did this lead to a decline?

Answer 24

It is possible that the population began to develop some natural resistance or that some diseases became less virulent.

Question 25

Improved nutrition

Answer 25

McKeown argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates, and was particularly important in reducing deaths of TB. Better nutrition increased resistance to infection.

Question 26

Eval

Answer 26

McKeown doesn't explain why women, who receive a smaller share of family food supply, lived longer than males. Similarly, he fails to explain why some infectious diseases such as measles and infant diarrhoea rose during times of better nutrition.

Question 27

Medical improvements

Answer 27

After 1950s, improved medical knowledge techniques and organisations did help to reduce death rates. The introduction to antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusion, improved maternity services as well as the setting up of the NHS. More recently there has been improved medication, surgery which have reduced deaths.

Question 28

Smoking and diet

Answer 28

Harper the decline in death rates is due to a reduction in the number of people smoking. However, in the 21st century, obesity has replaced smoking as the new life style epidemic. In 2012 one quarter of UK adults were obese. Deaths from obesity have been kept low due to drug therapies.

Question 29

Harper

Answer 29

We might be moving that we may be moving towards an 'American' health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long life span can be achieved by costly medication.

Question 30

Public health measures

Answer 30

In the 20th century, more effective central and local governments with the necessary power to pass and enforce laws led to a range of improvements in public health and the quality of the environment.

Question 31

What did these laws include

Answer 31

- improvements in housing ( more ventilation and less overcrowding). - purer drinking water - laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink - the pasteurisation of milk - Improved sewage disposal methods. Clean air act reduced air pollution such as the smog that led to 4,000 deaths in 5 days.

Question 32

Other social changes

Answer 32

- Decline in dangerous occupations such as mining - Smaller families led to a reduced rate of transmission. - Greater public knowledge of the cause of illness - Lifestyle changes, especially the reduction in the number of men who smoke. - Higher incomes = healthier life styles

Question 33

Life expectancy

Answer 33

How long on average a person is expected to live. - Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 ( 57 for females ). - Males born in England in 2013 can expect to live for 907 years and (90 females).

Question 34

Lower life expectancy

Answer 34

In 1900s many children did not survive beyond the early years of life. If the trens continues Harper predicts that we will soon achieve ' radical longevity' with many more centenarians ( people aged over 100). Currently 10,00 in the UK; by 2100 there are predicted to be one million.

Question 35

Gender differences

Answer 35

Women live longer than men

Question 36

Class differences

Answer 36

Working class men in unskilled or routine jobs are nearly three times more likely to die before 65 compared with men in managerial or professional jobs

Question 37

Regional differences

Answer 37

Those living in the north and in Scotland tend to have lower life spans.

Question 38

Walker

Answer 38

Those living in the poorest areas of England die on average seven years earlier than those in the richest areas. The difference in disability free life expectancy is 17 years.

Question 39

The ageing population

Answer 39

In 1971 the average age was 34.1. By 2013 it stood at 40.3. By 2037 it is predicted to reach 42.8. There are fewer younger people and more older people.

Question 40

Hirsch (2005)

Answer 40

The traditional age pyramid is disappearing and being replaced with irregular blocks representing different age groups.

Question 41

Effects - Public services

Answer 41

Older people consume larger portions of services such as health.

Question 42

Effect- One person households

Answer 42

Make up about one in eight households in the UK are known to be. Most likely to be women as they live longer but also they tend to be younger than their husbands. It is known as the feminisation of later life

Question 43

Ageism

Answer 43

The negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people on the basis of their age.

Question 44

How does it show itself

Answer 44

Discrimination and employment and unequal treatment in healthcare. This course in the way of speaking and thinking about old age and aging has been constructed as a problem.

Question 45

Structured dependency

Answer 45

The old age are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families of the state.

Question 46

Effects

Answer 46

In modern society identity and status or largely determined by our role in production. Those excluded from production by compulsory retirement have a dependence status and a stigmatised identity.

Question 47

Marxist perspective

Answer 47

Philipson (1982): the old Isle of no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive. As a result this state is unwilling to support them adequately and so the family especially female relatives have to often take the responsibility of the care

Question 48

Age and role allocation.

Answer 48

Creating fixed life stages and age related identities such as a worker or a pensioner. The old are excluded from a role in the labour force and made dependent and powerless.

Question 49

Postmodernist society

Answer 49

The fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down. Such as children dressing in adult styles, later marriage and early retirement began to blur the boundaries between life stages. This gives individuals a greater choice of lifestyle, whatever their age.

Question 50

Consumption big production

Answer 50

We now define ourselves with what we consume. Hunt: This means we can choose a lifestyle and identities regardless of our age: our age no longer determines who we are or how we live.

Question 51

Result

Answer 51

The old become a market for a vast range of body maintenance or rejuvenation goods and services through what they can create their identities this includes cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym membership and anti-aging products.

Question 52

Two feisty red if postmodern society undermine old age as a stigmatised life stage.

Answer 52

- The centrality of the media: media images now portray positive aspects of the lifestyles of the elderly. - Emphasis on surface features: the body becomes a surface on which we can write identities. Anti-aging products enable the old to write different identities for themselves.

Question 53

Inequality among the old

Answer 53

Pincher: inequalities such as class and gender remain important. Many of these are related to the individuals previous occupational position. Class: the middle-class have better occupational pensions and great savings from highest salaries poor older people have shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity. Gender: women’s lower earnings and career brakes as career means lower pensions. They are also subject to success as well as ages stereotyping for example being described as old hags.

Question 54

Age concern 2004

Answer 54

More people (29%) reported suffering age discrimination than any other form

Question 55

Policy implications

Answer 55

Hirsch: the a number of important social policies will need to change tackle the new problems posed by an agent population. The main problem is how to finance a longer period of old age. This can be done by paying more from our savings and taxes while we are working or by working for longer or both.

Question 56

Housing policy

Answer 56

May need to be changed to encourage all the people to trade down into smaller accommodation. This would release wealth to improve their standard of living and free up housing for younger people..

Question 57

Hirsch view

Answer 57

Illustrates the notion that old age is a social construct and is not fixed, purely biological fact, but something shaped and defined by society. For example in an aging society or idea of how old is old enough to retire may change

Question 58

Immigration.

Answer 58

From 1900 till the Second World War the largest immigrant group what the Irish mainly for economic reasons, followed by eastern and central European Jews, who were often refugees fleeing persecution

Question 59

Immigration

Answer 59

During the 1950s black immigrants from the Caribbean begin to arrive in the UK followed during the 1960s and the 1970s by south Asian immigrants from India India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and east African Asians from Kenya and Uganda.

Question 60

One consequence

Answer 60

More ethnically diverse society: By 2011 ethnic minority groups accounted for 14% of the population. One result has been a greater diversity of family patterns.

Question 61

Emigration

Answer 61

The UK was almost always an exporter of people as more people emigrated to live elsewhere then come to settle in the UK. Emigrants have gone to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

Question 62

Push factor

Answer 62

Economic reasons and unemployment at home

Question 63

Pull factor

Answer 63

Higher wages or better opportunities abroad

Question 64

The UK’s population

Answer 64

The U.K.’s population is currently growing partly as a result of immigration.

Question 65

Deaths and births

Answer 65

A natural increase with births exceeding deaths. However, birth to UK born mothers remained low. Birth to non UK born mothers are high and I come for about 25% of all births. But even with these births remain below the replacement level of 2.1 per woman the number needed to keep the population stable.

Question 66

Age structure

Answer 66

Immigration law, the average age of the population birth directly and indirectly Directly: immigrants are generally younger. In 2011 the average age of UK passport holder was 41, where is that non-UK passport holders living in Britain 31. Indirectly: being younger, immigrants are more fertile and thus produce more babies

Question 67

Dependency ratio

Answer 67

Immigrants are more likely to be of working age and this helps to lower the tansy ratio. In addition, many all the immigrants return to the country of origin to retire. The longer a group is settled in the country. The closer the fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing the overall impact on the dependency ratio.

Question 68

Globalisation

Answer 68

Bar is between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.

Question 69

Globalisation producing rapid social change.

Answer 69

One such changes is increased international migration.

Question 70

Acceleration

Answer 70

There has been a speeding up of of the rate of migration. According to the United Nations 2013 between 2000 and 2013 international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.2% of the world population .

Question 71

Differentiation

Answer 71

Globalisation is increasing the diversity of types of migrants. For example students make a majority of migrants, in the UK - Chinese - born (26%) than UK born (23%) postgraduate students.

Question 72

Super diversity

Answer 72

Vertovec: migrants now come from a much wider range of countries. Even within a single ethnic group individuals differ in terms of their legal status for example as citizens or spouses are given ethnic group may also be divided by culture or religion and be widely disposed throughout the UK.

Question 73

Cohen

Answer 73

Citizens: With full citizenship rights Denizens: Privileged foreign nationals welcomed by the state E.G billionaire or highly paid employees or multinational companies Helots: most exploited groups and the states and employees record them as disposable units of labour power, a reserve army of labour. They are found in unskilled poorly paid work.

Question 74

The feminisation of migrants

Answer 74

Almost half of all global migrants are female. This has been called the globalisation of the gender division of labour. Where female migrants find that they are fitted into patriarchal stereotypes about women’s roles as carers or providers of sexual services.

Question 75

Ehrenriech and Hoschild

Answer 75

Care work, domestic work and sex work in western countries like the UK and USA is increasingly done by women from poor countries.

Question 76

Shutes 2011

Answer 76

40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants. Most of these are females

Question 77

Global transfer of women’s emotional labour

Answer 77

Migrant nannies provide care and affection for their employees children at the expense of their own children left behind in their home country.

Question 78

Femininst view

Answer 78

Migrant women also enter western countries as male or debrides. This often reflects gendered and radical stereotypes for example of oriental women as subservient. Women migraines also entered the UK as illegally traffic sex workers, often cups and conditions amounting to slavery

Question 79

Migrant identities

Answer 79

Eade (1994) second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchical identities, they saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British. Those with hybrid identities may find that others challenge their identity claims or accuse them of not fitting in.

Question 80

Transnational identities

Answer 80

Eriksen (2007) globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, with back and forth movements of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country

Question 81

Result

Answer 81

Migraines are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture or country. I said they made develop transactional identities and loyalties. Modern technology also makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel.

Question 82

Assimilation

Answer 82

The first state policy approached to immigration. It aim to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them like us.

Question 83

Multiculturalism

Answer 83

Except that migrant may wish to retain a separate culture identity. However, in practice this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural identity Shallow diversity: chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish is acceptable to the state Deep diversity: arrange marriages or railing women is not acceptable to the state.

Question 84

Castles

Answer 84

Assimilation policies are counter-productive because they mark out minority groups as culturally backwards. This can lead to minorities responding by empty the differences. This increases the whole suspicion of them as an enemy within a may promote anti-terrorism policies that target them. This breeds further marginalisation defeating the goal of assimilation.

Question 85

A divided working class

Answer 85

Assimilationist ideas may also also encourage workers to blame migraines for social problems such as an employment resulting in racial scapegoating.

Question 86

Castles and Koask

Answer 86

This benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and preventing united action in defence of their interests