Development 2 Flashcards
1
Q
How could we view Piaget in terms of Freud?
A
Piaget was to developmental psychology what Freud was to clinical psychology: the leading figure against whom all theories are compared.
2
Q
What is abstract thinking?
A
to represent, mentally manipulate, and communicate about things that are not in our perception (e.g., mathematics, science, the concept of justice, etc.).
3
Q
Is abstract thought based on perception?
A
no it does not have anything to do with the immediate environment
4
Q
What is most of the thinking done as adults?
A
abstract thought
5
Q
What is the key idea behind piaget?
A
Piaget believed that humans are uniquely capable of abstract thinking, but that children gradually become more capable of it as they mature.
6
Q
According to Piaget, do children start with the ability to have abstract thought?
A
no
7
Q
according to Piaget do any non-human animals have abstract thought?
A
no
8
Q
according to Piaget do any non-human animals have abstract thought?
A
no
9
Q
What did Piaget believe in terms of the speed at which children advance through a series of four stages?
A
He believed that the children slowly advanced through the series of four stages
10
Q
What are the 5 things that Piaget believed about each stage?
A
- Determines the kinds of thoughts children are capable of.
- Is better than the last and leads to more abstract thinking. (because the stage takes everything the kid knew and adds to it)
- Happens in a precise order and no child may skip one. (he thought that every kid went through each stage at the same time)
- Is advanced to the next one by biological maturity (there is little that can speed them up).
- Changes suddenly, not gradually. (technically could just wake up one day and be in the next stage)
11
Q
What did Piaget mean by “operational”?
A
abstract
12
Q
What is the sensorimotor stage? What age?
A
the first stage, marked by the absence of abstract thought. All infants [0 - 12 month-olds] and most toddlers [12 – 36 month- olds] are in this stage. (in this class we usually say infants and toddlers)
13
Q
How can we describe thinking in the sensorimotor stage? How is knowledge conceptualized and gained through this stage?
A
For the child in this stage, the only things in their minds are what they can perceive right here, right now, including their own bodies.
Knowledge is conceptualized and gained through immediate perceptual and motor experiences only. Out of sight is out of mind. (This means that in this stage the only thing in the child’s mind is the immediate perception. They have no memories of the past, can’t think of the future, can’t categorize different experiences. They are entirely in the moment)
14
Q
What is object permanence? What is a reason that piaget thought that babies don’t have this?
A
the knowledge that is something can’t be seen it
continues to exist. Object permanence is a minescule abstract thought. Piaget thought that sensorimotor babies do not have object permanence.
15
Q
What is the A-not-B task? What will a baby in the sensorimotor stage do? What did Piaget believe this implied?
A
A baby is given a toy to play with. The toy is then hidden under one of two blankets or hidden behind an object.
Despite wanting the toy back, the baby will not look for it under either blanket and will instead be very upset that the toy is gone.
Piaget believed that this implied that sensorimotor children do not think that an object continues to exist once it is out of their perception (i.e., they lack object permanence).
16
Q
Is the A-not-B task replicable?
A
very much so
17
Q
What is a schema? How does object permanence relate to this?
A
an organized, stable bit of abstract knowledge about how the world works (e.g., that objects fall down when they are unsupported them).
Object permanence is a kind of schema. Kids become capable of more and more schemas.
18
Q
Is Piaget’s theory nativist or fundamentalist?
A
nativist
19
Q
What can child do with new experiences once they have a schema?
A
Assimilation: integrating new information into an existing schema (e.g., realizing that your pet Fido is a member of the schema “dogs”).
Accommodation: changing or making new schemas once new information is discovered (e.g., realizing that cats are not dogs). (once you have one schema you start to realize that not everything fits into the schema)
20
Q
What is the pre-operational stage? At what age is a child in this stage?
A
the second stage during which children understand the permanence and abstraction of objects and events, but still struggle to think about minds of others, or to logically manipulate objects in their mind.
Some toddlers and all preschoolers [3 – 6 year-olds] are pre-operational. (in this class we won’t include toddlers)
21
Q
What do children in the pre-operational stage lack? What are children fixated on at this stage?
A
Children in this stage lack a theory of mind.
Children remain “fixated” by their perception, easily believing things they see even if they are logically false.
22
Q
What is conservation in Piaget’s theory? How is it measured?
A
logically reasoning that quantities
don’t change from simple transformations. The volume conservation task, number conservation task.
23
Q
Volume Conservation Task?
A
children are shown two glasses with the same amount of water. The water from one cup is then poured into a wider cup; children say that the two glasses don’t have the same anymore.
24
Q
What is the Number Conservation Task?
A
two rows of five coins are aligned and children say that the two rows have the same number; one of the rows is stretched, and the kids now say that the longer row has more.
25
Which of Piaget's experiments demonstrates a critical failure of fixedness?
The experiment with the juice demonstrates a critical failure of fixedness where the way that things look affect the kids ability to reason
26
What is the concrete operational stage? What age is in this stage?
the third Piagetian stage during which children become capable of doing basic logical thinking (e.g., “reversibility” of perception) but still cannot imagine the world to be different than it is.
All school-aged children [6 – 12 year-olds are concrete operational.
27
What are children in the concrete operational stage fixed by?
before they were fixed by their perception of the world, now they are fixed on the rules of the world
28
What are children in the concrete operational stage fixed by?
before they were fixed by their perception of the world, now they are fixed on the rules of the world
29
What is the counterfactual rule task?
a child is told a counter-intuitive rule and asked to predict – if the rule is true – what will happen. Concrete operational children focus on the reality of the situation, not on what would logically happen if the rule was true. (They will be told a rule that isnt true in our world abd they will not be able to imagine what would happen inconsistently with how the world really is)
30
What is the Formal Operaitonal Stage?
the final Piagetian Stage during which children become fully capable of logical and abstract thinking and are no longer dominated by their own perceptions or intuitions about the world.
31
What is the Formal Operaitonal Stage? What age is in it? What does this finally give them the ability to do in terms of thinking?
the final Piagetian Stage during which children become fully capable of logical and abstract thinking and are no longer dominated by their own perceptions or intuitions about the world.
This finally gives them the ability to conceptualize of hypothesis testing, deductive reasoning, and planning of what to do and how to achieve it.
All adolescent [post-puberty until 19] and adults are formal operational.
32
What did Piaget think was the epitome of abstract thinking?
scientific thinking
33
What can kids do in the sensorimotor stage? What can they not do?
Can:
Perceive the world and their bodies. Form schemas. Assimilate and accommodate.
Cannot:
Abstract thought of any kind
Know that things exist outside of perception
Reversibility
Counterfactual Rules
Hypothesis testing or scientific thinking
34
What can kids do in the pre-operational stage? What can they not do?
Can:
Have basic schemas of how the world works, including that things in immediate perception are not only things that exist.
Cannot:
Reversibility
Counterfactual Rules
Hypothesis testing or scientific thinking
35
What can kids in the concrete operational stage do? What can they not do?
Can:
More advanced abstract thought, including reversibility.
Cannot:
Counterfactual Rules
Hypothesis testing or scientific thinking
36
What can kids in the formal operational stage do?
fully abstract thought
37
What are modern theories on cognitive development?
Modern theories of cognitive development are varied and there are many active debates and disagreements about how children learn.
38
Is there consensus on how cognitive development actually unfolds?
no
39
What are three parts of modern theories that contrast with Piaget's approach?
Tasks: Modern approaches believe Piaget did not make his tasks sufficiently well for children’s actual capabilities, thereby under-estimating what they can do.
Stages: Most researchers today think of development as fluid and non-universal.
Early Abstract Thought: Modern research shows abstract thought in very young
children and infants. (people think that kids are capable of abstract thought even as babies)
40
What do modern theories think are the 2 main problems with Piagetean tasks and games?
Leading questions: many Piagetian tasks are structured in ways where children are asked the same question twice, making children believe that they answered incorrectly the first time and changing their answer even if they don’t believe it to be right. (the experimenter doesn’t say that they are right or wrong, they just change it. This resembles a teaching moment. Kids are very sensitive to this so they might think you are trying to teach us something because they think they got it wrong the first time)
Motor and Perceptual Development: many tasks, especially A-not-B, require stronger motor development that young infants have. Maybe they want to reach, but just can’t? (Piaget did not properly estimate what kids are capable of in terms of motor development)
41
How is object permanence tested today?
with looking time measures which
consistently reveal that infants do have object permanence:
When infants are shown an object move behind the wall, they are very surprised when it fails to peek out from the hole in the wall even though, the moment the object disappears, they should have no expectations about it continuing to exist. (hands are one of the last things to develop in terms of motor control so it may be that a kid cannot lift the blanket so they don’t try.)
42
What have researchers done to remove leading questions in the conservation tasks?
researchers can have the child watch the transformation that another child (or stuffed animal) did not see.
When the child is asked to tell to another child (or stuffed animal) if the liquid/number is the same or different, preschoolers correctly say “the same” even after the transformation.
Therefore: the original tasks likely had kids change their answer because the experimenter asked the same question again for apparently no reason.
43
does modern research show that children go through ordered stages?
no
44
What is domain specificity?
children develop some very abstract abilities early (e.g., language skills) but other ones very slowly (e.g., spatial navigation) despite a comparable level of abstraction required. (the fact that there can be unequal evidence of the development of different domains of abstract thought suggests that Piaget was wrong about the stage aspect)
44
What is domain specificity?
children develop some very abstract abilities early (e.g., language skills) but other ones very slowly (e.g., spatial navigation) despite a comparable level of abstraction required. (the fact that there can be unequal evidence of the development of different domains of abstract thought suggests that Piaget was wrong about the stage aspect)
45
What are the cross cultural effects of stage development?
children’s development varies widely across cultures; in cultures where children are taught to hunt from an early age, their spatial navigation develops substantially faster than in cultures where they do not. (people in the west develop spatial navigation slowly, but in other cultures, it develops substantially faster. Suggesting these stages are not universal and kids can accelerate through some abilities and not others.)
46
Can babies reason about abstract concepts? Which ones, how?
yes.
Physics of objects: if a baby is shown an object that is impossibly balanced, they will be surprised and stare at the object longer.
Morality: babies as young as six months understand the concept of “nice” vs. “bad” guy and gravitate towards nice ones.
Number: newborns have been shown to be able to represent and think about numbers approximately, as well as roughly add, subtract, and even multiply.
47
What idea has most modern psychology gone beyond the idea of?
While Piaget has been deeply influential, most modern psychology research has gone beyond the idea of children as purely perceptual beings and as going through a series of stages.
48
What are 3 things that modern theories of cognitive development all agree on?
Children can learn in varied and unpredictable ways.
Babies and young children know much more about the world that we ever
thought.
Children can go beyond their perception and use logical thinking much earlier than we ever expected.
49
What is language? What is it for?
Language: a system of thinking and communicating that combines arbitrary symbols (e.g., words or gestures) in a rule-based way to generate meaning:
Language is for communicating (external) but also for thinking (internal).
50
Are the symbols used in a language arbitrary? How does this relate to learning a language.
yes. (i.e., there is nothing particularly
dog-like about the word “dog”).
This makes language very flexible but it also makes it really difficult to learn because you have to learn so many random associations
51
Do symbols in language have to be verbal?
no. The symbols can be verbal, written, gestural, etc. Sign language is as much a language as spoken language is.
52
What are the 4 distinct levels that language can be though of through?
Phonemes: The basic building blocks (e.g., sounds) out of which words are constructed.
Syntax: The grammatical rules that we follow to construct meaning from words
Semantics: The meaning that we derive from complete sentences
Pragmatics: The "extra-linguistic" inferences we make from the manner in which we say sentences.
53
What are phonemes? Example? Are they tied to letters?
the basic building blocks (e.g., sounds) out of which words are
constructed.
For example, English has around 44 unique sounds/phonemes (20 vowels and 24 consonants) out of which we construct all words. (these sounds are not tied to letters which is why we have so many vowel sounds)
54
Do different languages differ in their sets of phonemes? Examples?
yes.
English lacks a “retroflex /d/” sound which is present in languages like Hindi.
English doesn’t use “non-pulmonic consonants” (click sounds) which are very common in many African languages.
English doesn’t use “uvular consonants”, which push the sound further back the throat or into the nose, which are very common in Arabic and other Middle- Eastern languages.
English doesn’t use “trill consonants”, like rolling /r/ sounds.
55
What is syntax?
the grammatical rules that we follow to construct meaning out of
words.
56
What are 2 differences in the syntax of language?
Word Order: English is a “Subject/Verb/Object” language (e.g., “John kicked the dog”) while many others (e.g., Japanese, Korean, Latin) are “Subject/Object/Verb” languages (e.g., “John dog kicked”).
Morphology: some languages, like English, mark for tense or number by adding “morphemes” at the ends of words (e.g., table/tables, clean/cleaned/cleaning). Other languages mark for these properties by introducing entirely new words (e.g., in Malay, you pluralize by repeating the word).
57
What is semantics?
the meanings that we derive from words and complete
sentences.
58
How can meaning differ between languages? (2 things)
Languages can all express the same meanings at the sentence-level. But languages vary at which meanings they carry as words:
Spatial terms: languages like Korean differentiate between spatial terms that refer to things fitting tightly together.
Color words: while some languages have hundreds of words for different colours, some languages only have 2 or 4 (roughly mapping to cool vs. warm colour).
59
What is pragmatics?
the "extra-linguistic" inferences we make from the manner in which we say sentences, or from information that we choose to include or exclude. (sarcasm falls into the idea of pragmatics)
60
What is language acquisition?
the developmental process through which a child learns their first language, and masters all four levels from phonemes to pragmatics. (the process that children go through to master their language)
61
What is production/comprehension Asymmetry?
children begin understanding/comprehending the language they are learning earlier than they start producing their own sentences.
Language acquisition is usually about when children begin understanding, not when they begin speaking. (Most of the time when we are talking about language acquisition we are talking about the comprehension part. We often would not assess someones syntax or semantics we see if they respond appropriately to a sentence)
62
When does phonetic development occur?
Phonetic development occurs extremely early:
In utero: by the fifth month of pregnancy, fetuses have a developed auditory system that can listen and begin identifying the phonemes of the languages that are spoken around the baby.
63
What is perceptual narrowing?
babies initially can perceptually hear all possible phonemes, but their perceptual systems slowly change to learn only those spoken by their language community.
64
Is real speech fluid? What does this mean? What does it suggest?
yes. we don’t leave gaps between words when we speak. (we can only tell where different words end and begin because of our comprehension of the language. You can’t learn the syntax of language until you learn what the words are and you can’t learn what those are until you have learned the syntax.
65
What is statistical learning? How does this relate to babies?
a learning mechanism that identifies which things tend to co-occur/follow each other very often, and which do not. Things that co- occur together frequently are assumed to be meaningful.
Babies are powerful statistical learners: they listen to fluid speech and detect which phonemes are occurring together again and again, and infer that common co-occurences are word boundaries.
we all have this but it is especially prevalent in infancy. As soon as they know what phonemes exist in their language, they can figure out patterns for how they occur together, to make inferences that things that co occur togethet are liekly to be words
66
What are words? Example?
Words are consistent patterns of phonemes: e.g., the sounds “pre” then
“ty” go together more often that “ty” then “pre”
this is a reliable pattern. Also, before mostnouns we use a word like “the “ so we understand that the is a marker that helps us identify that the following word is a noun
67
What is overgeneralization? Example? What does this show?
a common developmental phenomena whereby children
temporarily apply a syntactic rule to words that they shouldn’t:
When learning past tense, many children will say “I eated him” or “I goed to the store”; when learning plurals, children will say words that they have never heard from adults or those around them (e.g., “mouses” instead of “mice”).
This shows that children are learning syntactic rules and not just imitating what they have heard around them.
68
what are kids producing in terms of language at age 2? What do we believe about word acquisition in 7 year olds?
By age 2, most children are producing two-word utterances (“food please”),
and by age 3 most children can produce 3-4 word complete sentences.
By most estimates, by the time they are seven, children know well over 20,000 words and are learning about 10 – 20 words/day.
69
What is fast-mapping?
young children map a word to a meaning after only a single exposure.
70
what 2 special strategies does learning words acquire?
Fast Mapping: young children map a word to a meaning after only a single exposure.
Mutual Exclusivity: children assume that every object has only a single word, and therefore assume that a word they have never heard before goes with something they don’t know what to call. (eventually children will have to lose some of this in order to be more flexible with synonyms etc. )
71
Do children struggle with pragmatics? Why? When do they start to udnerstand?
Because pragmatics require a deep knowledge of not only what sentences mean but what they could mean, children struggle with pragmatics of language until they are around 7 – 9 years old, often taking the meanings of sentences too literally
72
What is bilingualism? How popular is it?
being proficient in speaking and comprehending two (or more) languages.
More than 50% of the world’s population is bilingual.
In Canada, 18% of households report regularly speaking at least two languages at
home.
73
How can bilingualism be challenging?
Bilingualism is a unique challenge for children, who must now find a way to learn the phonetics/syntax/semantics of two different languages (“L1” and “L2”).
74
What are the 3 costs of bilingualism?
Delayed production: most bilingual children begin uttering their first words 2 – 4 months later than monolinguals.
Slower acquisition of syntax: most bilingual children go through a period where their syntactic understanding of L1 and L2 is lower than monolinguals, leading to frequent situations where their utterances are blends of the two languages.
Reduced mutual exclusivity: bilinguals can’t use mutual exclusivity as reliably because every object in the world does have multiple labels, slowing down their semantic word acquisition, as well.
75
WHat are the 3 benefits of bilingualism?
Dual Language Mastery: once they are about 4 – 6 years-old, bilinguals have fully caught up to monolinguals in syntax and semantics, and are now fully proficient in both languages.
Inhibitory control: inhibitory control, delay of gratification, and other cognitive control functions are slightly better in bilinguals compared to monolinguals.
Benefits for aging: bilingual brains show significantly reduced effects of aging, including in preserving long-term memory and inhibitory control for longer periods of time; these benefits extend to both linguistic and non-linguistic tasks.
76
What is considered to be one of the most documented aspects of child development?
Language is one of the most well documented aspects of child development
as all children begin without the ability to understand or speak language.
77
What do children virturall master in terms of language by age 5
But – within a span of 5 years – children master virtually all aspects of language:
Phonetics are mastered first, starting in utero.
Syntactic rules are next, including through statistical learning.
Word learning undergoes a tremendous spurt after age 2. Pragmatics are the slowest to emerge.
78
What is attachment? What is it a strong predictor of? Is attachment consistent across caregivers?
the earliest emotional and social bond that forms between newborn infants and their primary caregivers; this includes expectations of physical and emotional care.
Attachment is a strong predictor of social development more generally, even after childhood.
Children develop separate attachment relationships with different caregivers in their life. (attachment more generally looks at any caregiver or multiple caregiver. May have one expectation for one caregiver and a different one for another.)
79
What is the wire mother experiment? What were the conditions? What were the results? What does this tell us?
Wire Mother Experiments: baby monkeys were
raised choose between one of two “mothers”:
The “wire mother” gave food but no warmth or comfort (physical care)
The “cloth mother” gave warmth and comfort but no food (emotional care)
Baby monkeys strongly prefer the cloth mother and only went to the wire mother to feed.
Monkeys raised in isolation from other monkeys and
with only the wire monkey showed disturbed social behaviours.
showed behaviorus like biting themselves. We know that emotional care is necessary for development in non-human primates.
80
Is the Harlow experiment considered ethical? can it be done today?
this study led to changes in ethics in comparative psychology. These experiments can’t be run today
81
What are the Romanian orphanages? what are they seen as real-life parallel's to?
throughout the 70s and 80s, orphanages in Romania become filled with young children who could not be taken care of by the system. (in the orphanages, the kids did not recieve much emotional support because wokers had to be focused on physical care)
Upon their eventual adoption and release from the orphanage, many children showed significantly dysfunctional behaviour during social situations.
These effects were minimized if children were taken out of the orphanage early enough.
This tragic case is often cited as a real-life parallel to the wire monkey experiments.
82
What are the strange situations? How was it designed?
a behavioural test that examines how each child is attached to a specific caregiver.
A child and their caregiver come into the lab and the child spends some time playing with an experimenter with the caregiver present.
The caregiver then leaves the room for a few minutes, and the child’s reaction is observed.
The caregiver then returns and the child’s reaction is again examined.
82
What are the strange situations? How was it designed?
a behavioural test that examines how each child is attached to a specific caregiver.
A child and their caregiver come into the lab and the child spends some time playing with an experimenter with the caregiver present.
The caregiver then leaves the room for a few minutes, and the child’s reaction is observed.
The caregiver then returns and the child’s reaction is again examined.
83
What are the four categories of attachment that kids fall into?
Secure Attachment: children notice the caregiver leaving and may show some distress; when the caregiver comes back they notice this and are calmed down by the presence, exhibiting positive emotions. (this is the majority of attachments)
Avoidant Attachment: children appear minimally upset when the caregiver leaves and when the parent returns they do not acknowledge them (i.e., they are simply avoiding the caregiver in every situation); but they are stressed.
Ambivalent/Resistant/Anxious Attachment: children are clingy and very upset when the caregiver leaves but are still inconsolable or even angry when the caregiver returns.
Disorganized Attachment: children or their caregivers show no clear patterns, or
show fear or anger towards each other. (this type of attachment occurs mainly with how the caregiver reacts to the child and this also occurs when the attachment doesn’t seem to fit into any of the other categories.) This is most closely related to negative outcomes.
83
What are the four categories of attachment that kids fall into?
Secure Attachment: children notice the caregiver leaving and may show some distress; when the caregiver comes back they notice this and are calmed down by the presence, exhibiting positive emotions. (this is the majority of attachments)
Avoidant Attachment: children appear minimally upset when the caregiver leaves and when the parent returns they do not acknowledge them (i.e., they are simply avoiding the caregiver in every situation); but they are stressed.
Ambivalent/Resistant/Anxious Attachment: children are clingy and very upset when the caregiver leaves but are still inconsolable or even angry when the caregiver returns.
Disorganized Attachment: children or their caregivers show no clear patterns, or
show fear or anger towards each other. (this type of attachment occurs mainly with how the caregiver reacts to the child and this also occurs when the attachment doesn’t seem to fit into any of the other categories.) This is most closely related to negative outcomes.
84
Where do differences in attachment come from? (2 things)
temperament and parenting style
85
What is temperament?
characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity, including tendencies towards irritability, fearfulness, loud noises, new people, etc. Strong genetic component. Children that are more temperamental are less secure.
86
What are parenting styles? how does this relate to the security of infants?
characteristic patterns of parenting, including degree of attention to child, amount of help, comfort, etc.
Secure infants tend to have parents that are empathic and reactive.
Abuse, trauma, and parental conflict are more likely to lead to disorganized
attachment.
87
What is theory of mind and why is it a major milestone?
the ability to represent the beliefs and desires of people who are not you. (this is a major milestone because it helps you explain and predict other peoples actions.)
88
What is the false Belief/sally anne task? What are the results?
children are told a story about Sally who hides a toy in a basket and leaves the room; Anne comes in and moves the toy from the basket to a box. When Sally returns, where will she look for the toy?
Children younger than ~4.5 years “fail” this task, and believe Sally will look where Anne moved it.
Children older than ~5 “pass” and reason, like adults, that Sally will look to where she last placed it. (demonstrate a rudementary theory of mind.)
89
What has the sally-anne task been used to suggest?
The Sally-Anne Task has been extensively used to suggest that Theory of
Mind develops with maturity or experience. (theory of mind is not present at birth.)
90
What is the sally ann task shown to moderately correlate with? What does it not correlate with? What has it been used to argue?
The test has been shown to moderately correlate with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) – only around 20% of children with Autism “pass” the Sally- Anne task, even when they are older than 4.5 years.
Other conditions (e.g., Down’s and Williams Syndrome) do not delay children in passing this task.
This finding has been used by some to argue that ASD is a selective lack of a ToM developing at a developmentally appropriate time.
91
Why is the sally anne task criticized?
However, the task is also criticized for being too complicated:
For example, if we analyze children’s facial expressions, they show surprise when Sally looks at the new location, even though they say she would search there.
Looking-preference versions of the task have also shown that 2-year-olds can “pass” the task.
92
Do we have active consensus on whether or not ToM is innate?
no
93
WHat are 3 three main perspectives on moral development?
Are babies are innately evil (society must stamp it out!), or they are innately good (noble savages), or they have no preferences and they have to learn everything (it’s entirely up to parenting and/or culture).
93
WHat are 3 three main perspectives on moral development?
Are babies are innately evil (society must stamp it out!), or they are innately good (noble savages), or they have no preferences and they have to learn everything (it’s entirely up to parenting and/or culture).
94
What is moral reasoning?
the thinking and justification process by which we decide whether something was a moral or immoral behaviour. Most classic work in development focuses on how children learn this process. (ability to specifically and consistently verbalize rational for actions. )
95
What is moral reasoning rarely about? example?
Moral reasoning is rarely about actions or outcomes, but about intentions and motivations behind them. For example:
If somebody helps to become famous, we don’t think it’s very moral.
If you steal something to save a starving child, we may think it is moral.
96
What is kohlberg's theory of morality? What did he think about movement through the stages?
a stage-theory of moral reasoning in which
children begin with a focus on consequences, then rules, then principles:
he thought that movement from one stage to another is not just about maturity and that there are skills that they have to develop first.
97
What are the three stages of kohlberg's theory? What do they relate to? What are justifications?
Preconventional Stage (Consequences): reasoning is focused on material consequences, such as avoiding punishment or maximizing pleasure. (might say I don’t want to do this becuase I will be grounded, Its olay to do that thing because I want to)
Conventional Stage (Rules): reasoning is focused on conformity to societal values and norms and other people’s opinions. (If i do thinga that other people think are okay then people will like me. )
Postconventional Stage (Principles): reasoning is focused on abstract principles, derived independently from society, other people, or specific time and place. Focus is on mutual benefit, balance between individual and group liberty, and democracy. (moral principles or universal truths that are rights or wrongs in the world but they transcend a particular culture.)
98
What is the dilemma provided by Moral reasoning theorists?
The Heinz Dilemma.
99
What are the 3 main problems that Kohlberg's theory suffers from?
Only relevant for Western male participants: theory is based entirely on Western male viewpoints of morality and with only Western male participants; the fit of the stages to different cultures is poor.
Inconsistency: the very same person can reason about different dilemmas using different principles, invalidating the idea of stages.
Reasoning is NOT necessarily morality: people can consistently act in ways that are moral (or immoral) without being able to justify it verbally; what do we make of their sense of morality?
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What do we look at in modern work on morality? (3 things)
Focused on actions rather than justifications: we find that children are highly pro- social from early life, and will spontaneously help members of their in-group (we look at childrens actions and see if this is reflective of the culture that they live in. (we look at childrens actions and see if this is reflective of the culture that they live in. )
Moral emotions: focus is on children’s experience of shame, guilt, and empathy, which all emerge very early in development. (this suggests that kids have some sense of what is right or wrong.)
Morality in Infancy: by using measures of overt behaviour and looking, we can examine what infants believe to be good vs. bad behaviour.
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What is the helper hinderer infant experiment?
infants see one agent who helps and one who hinders a third party; they then get to choose which one they want to play with or look at.
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What are the results of the helper hinderer infant experiment?
By 6 months, infants show a strong preference for the helper puppet.
The task generalizes to other domains of helping, like opening boxes or finding hidden objects.
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What does social development begin with? What is it predicted by?
Social development begins with attachment, which is predicted by both biological (temperament) and experiential (parenting style) factors.
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Is attachment just about physical protection?
Attachment is not merely about physical protection and feeding, but about emotional support, as well.
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How is the theory of mind assessed? Is it a well supported task?
Theory of mind is assessed with the Sally-Anne task, but it remains contested whether it is innate or emerges with development.
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What is moral development classically studied with?
Moral development is classically studied with moral reasoning, but more recently has been demonstrated in young kids with alternative methods.
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What does developmental psychology examine?
how people change—physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally—from infancy through old age
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What are stages?
Distinct segments of an organisms life with sharp differences or discontinuities between them.
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How can we look at qualitative vs quantitative development?
Qualitative: a person develops her psychology, changes abruptly from one stage to the next, and she seems to have very different characteristics than she had before.
Quantitative: as a person develops, he changes gradually and continually across time.
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Today do we view development as qualitative or quantitative?
quantitative.
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what is maturation?
a series of biological growth processes that enable orderly growth relatively independent of experience.
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What is the germinal stage? What happens during this stage?
the first two weeks of a zygote's life.
the cells of the zygote multiply rapidly
After 2 weeks it is called a blastocyte which implants itself into the uterus.
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What is the embryonic stage?
the stage when a zygote plants itself into the uterus (2 to 8 weeks). The inner cells of the blastocyte form the embryo, then the placenta begins to form.
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What is the embryonic stage?
the stage when a zygote plants itself into the uterus (2 to 8 weeks). The inner cells of the blastocyte form the embryo, then the placenta begins to form.
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What does the endoderm layer form?
gut and digestive system
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what does the mesoderm layer form?
the skeletal system and voluntary muscles
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what does the ectoderm form?
the cells of the nervous system and the outer skin
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What stage follows the embryonic stage? what is it?
the fetal stage.
beginning in the 9th week and continuing to birth. During this time the sensory systems make great strides. By the 17th week the ears begin to function and it responds to some sounds.
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Where does a child hear the mothers voice from?
outside but also through reverberations in the bones etc.
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Where does a child hear the mothers voice from?
outside but also through reverberations in the bones etc.
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When does the visual system develop?
slowly. The eyes remain closed until the 26th week. Soon after, the fetus becomes responsive to light. BY 28 weeks, the visual cortex also shows some response to flashes of light aimed at the mothers abdomen
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When is a fetus considered full-term? what does this mean?
at 37 weeks. Means its brain, lungs, and liver have developed enough for life.
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Where do the major structures of the brain first emerge from?
a structure called the neural tube and develop dramatically during prenatal life.
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at what stage does the neural tube emerge? How many parts does it have? What are they?
during the embryonic stage
Has 3 identifiable parts:
- one that will develop into the brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
- a second that will develop into the midbrain
- a third that will develop into the midbrain
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What is neural migration?
glia create guide wires that move the newly created neurons to appropriate positions in the brain. Various chemicals surrounding the neurons also guide the migration process, affecting the neurons’ direction and final destination. As neurons migrate, they organize themselves into layers, following an inside out pattern. The first arriving neurons will become the innermost layer of the cortex. Later arriving neurons pass these now-stationary cells to form the next layer, these are passed by even later arrivals.
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What is neural migration?
glia create guide wires that move the newly created neurons to appropriate positions in the brain. Various chemicals surrounding the neurons also guide the migration process, affecting the neurons’ direction and final destination. As neurons migrate, they organize themselves into layers, following an inside out pattern. The first arriving neurons will become the innermost layer of the cortex. Later arriving neurons pass these now-stationary cells to form the next layer, these are passed by even later arrivals.
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Is it enough if nerve cells end up in the right place of the brain?
no. They also have to connect in the right way. So that each nerve cell sends its message to the right target.
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What is the role of genes in neural migration?
early in development. the genes provide a rough wiring diagram that determines where the nuerons migrate. when the neurons go where instructed, they seem to attract connections from the appropriate inputs.
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is brain organization flexible?
yes. although some brain organization is determined by genes, the brain is flexible and can adapt.
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what are 2 categories of disruption to fetal environment?
(a) some disruptions to typical development are caused by genetic and chromosomal problems, as in down syndrome
(b) others are caused by environmental factors, as in fetal alcohol syndrome
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What are 3 disorders caused by disruptions in genes?
sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, PKU
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What are 3 disorders caused by disruptions in genes?
sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, PKU
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What are 8 examples of teratogens?
lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, pesticides, alcool, cigarette smoke, x-rays, rubella
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What can lead to different effects relating to teratogens?
type, timing, and exposure.
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What can lead to different effects relating to teratogens?
type, timing, and exposure.
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In what sequence do motor skills tend to develop?
from the head to the feet. And from the centre of the body outward.
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In what sequence do motor skills tend to develop?
from the head to the feet. And from the centre of the body outward.
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In what sequence do motor skills tend to develop?
from the head to the feet. And from the centre of the body outward.
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What is something that western cultures do that is related to delayed walking? Why?
putting kids on back for sleeping. Parents do it because it is believed to reduce the chance of sudden infant death syndrome.
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What does cognitive development refer to?
Changes in all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
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What does cognitive development refer to?
Changes in all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
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according to Piaget, what do infants do in the sensorimotor period? What did Piaget think as a result of this?
babies build their foundation of physical knowledge through their senses and actions. As babies interact with things they are learning how things look, feel sound, and taste. They come to understand how their own bodies can interact with those things. Because of this, Piaget argued that babies in this stage only think about what is right in front of them.
As a result, he thought that babies lacked object permanence. (the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are temporarily out of sight)
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What types of rules do infants learn first? second?
physical rules for objects first. next, a similar understanding of substances like sand or water.
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Why can infants not express their knowledge of the properties of objects in Piaget's theory?
Because most of the behaviours require things like holding objects in mind and planning reaching behaviours which requires the prefrontal cortex which is relatively immature in infancy.
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In what ways is an infant's prefrontal cortex relatively immature? What processes do they need? (3 processes)
the nervous system is relatively disorganized at birth. The infants nervous system needs to organize itself into complex and efficient neural networks that will support thinking, feeling, and behaving as a human. This organization involves several important processes.
(1) Neural proliferation: the creation of new synaptic connections
(2) Synaptic pruning: the trimming back of unnecessary synapses according to a “use it or lose it” principle—connections that get used are maintained, and unused connections are eliminated
(3) the myelination of axons: the process of insulating axons in myelin, which speeds their conductivity and allows information to move more rapidly through the brain and body.
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In what ways is an infant's prefrontal cortex relatively immature? What processes do they need? (3 processes)
the nervous system is relatively disorganized at birth. The infants nervous system needs to organize itself into complex and efficient neural networks that will support thinking, feeling, and behaving as a human. This organization involves several important processes.
(1) Neural proliferation: the creation of new synaptic connections
(2) Synaptic pruning: the trimming back of unnecessary synapses according to a “use it or lose it” principle—connections that get used are maintained, and unused connections are eliminated
(3) the myelination of axons: the process of insulating axons in myelin, which speeds their conductivity and allows information to move more rapidly through the brain and body.
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what are the fastes and slowest areas of the brain to mature?
fastest = those that process sensory info such as the occipital lobe.
slowest = the frontal lobes which enable rational planning, working memory, and deliberate decision making.
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What is separation anxiety? What is it a strong indication of?
infants seek closeness and shows distress when separated from their caregiver. It indicates that the child has formed an attachment to their caregiver.
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what is a secure base in terms of attachment?
a caregiver that makes the child feel safe and protected
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what is a secure base in terms of attachment?
a caregiver that makes the child feel safe and protected
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What did we discover about monkeys who were raised in isolation?
the animals huddled in the corer of the cage, clasped themselves, rocked back and forth, and when brought together with normally reared monkeys they wouldn't play, withdrew, bit themselves and at sexual maturity they were incapable of mating. Females artificially impregnated were neglectful and abusive towards their offspring.
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why do children need to form an attachment to their caregiver?
for survival.
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What are the benefits of securely attached infants?
grow to be more socially appealing, socially skilled, and successful in mastering language and other challenging tasks compared to their insecurely attached peers. They also show fewer behaviour problems and are less likely to develop anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence.
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What are the benefits of securely attached infants?
grow to be more socially appealing, socially skilled, and successful in mastering language and other challenging tasks compared to their insecurely attached peers. They also show fewer behaviour problems and are less likely to develop anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence.
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what are operations according to Piaget?
in childhood, the manipulation of schemas. involve imagining how things like people or objects might be different than they are, or imagining the consequences of some event without needing to see it happen.
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Why is it difficult for kids to understand conservation?
the reason is connected to the maturation of the frontal lobe which includes the brain structures believed to be essential for cognitive control (the ability to override automatic ways of thinking in favour of strategies that require more effort.
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Why is it difficult for kids to understand conservation?
the reason is connected to the maturation of the frontal lobe which includes the brain structures believed to be essential for cognitive control (the ability to override automatic ways of thinking in favour of strategies that require more effort.
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What does children's brain inflexibility resemble?
adults who have sustained a traumatic brain injury
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What is egocentrism?
In Piaget's theory, the difficulty that pre-operational children have with thinking about how objects or situations perceived by other people.
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can early social interactions spur cognitive development?
yes.
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What is the sociocultural view of development?
proposal that the child's mind grows through social interaction with knowledgeable others.
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What is scaffolding in the sociocultural view of development? When does it work best?
a process of promoting cognitive development by actively challenging and supporting children as they attempt things that are beyond their current capabilities. It works best when it allows children to be challenged but not overwhelmed.
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How does scaffolding happen through language?
Children listen to their adult mentors and then often repeat those words through private speech, a kind of talking to themselves that reminds them of adults’ coaching so that they can learn to regulate themselves and solve problems.
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What have researchers found about mothers who are more frequently mind-minded (use frequent mental state language)?
their infants were more likely to pass tests of false belief several years later
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How do we think autobiographical memory grows?
as a result of conversations with adults. By listening to the parents specific questions, the sequence of questions and their levels of detail, the child starts to figure out what is worth reporting in an event and for that matter, what is worth paying attention to when the event unfolds in the first place.
In addition, by having their parents go into detail about their child's contributions to things.
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What are the 2 dimensions that capture the differences in parenting styles?
- how sesnitive and response they are to their child's actions or needs.
- How demanding or controlling they are of their children's behaviour.
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What are the 4 types of parenting styles?
Authoritarian: low on responsiveness and highly demanding. They provide minimal emotional support yet impose strict rules and standards for behavior. Authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience. Children must follow the rules out of respect for the parent’s authority, so authoritarian parents see no need to explain the rules. Failure to follow the rules, for any reason, may lead to severe punishment.
Permissive: high on responsiveness, and low on the demanding scale. These parents are very warm and attentive to their children, but they set few rules and restrictions. They indulge their child's needs and wishes, leading o a very unstructured daily life without strict timeframes. Because there are so few rules, punishments are rare. Permissive parents also require very little of their children, like doing chores or schoolwork. In these households, anything goes.
Authoritative: both very responsible and very demanding. They establish and enforce clear rules and structure, but they explain their reasoning. They are also flexible in response to their children's opinions and reasonable requests. Rules can be bent when the circumstance requires it, and open discussion allows children to play an active role in determining the rules of the household, including consequences of misbehaviour. Authoritative parents give their children responsibilities, along with the coaching required to meet those responsibilities with independence and maturity.
Disengaged: neither responsive nor demanding. These parents impose few rules and responsibilities, but they are also relatively insensitive to their children's needs. Disengaged parenting may emerge when parents are too overwhelmed by other concerns to focus on child rearing, leading to neglect.
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which parenting style is best?
authoritative.
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Which parenting styles predicted pre-school-aged children who were the most self-reliant, self-controlled, curious and happy. What else does it predict?
authoratative.
Also predicts better academic achievement, adaptive problem solving, reduced risk of depression, and even healthier body weight.
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What are common characteristics of children of authoritarian parents?
tend to be obedient and respectful toward adults, but show worse academic performance and have lower self-esteem.
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What are common characteristics of children of permissive parents?
score high on self-confidence but low on self-control
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What are common characteristics of children of disengaged parents?
suffer the worst outcomes. Low academic performance, high rates of depression, and more unhealthy behaviours like smoking.
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What are common characteristics of children of disengaged parents?
suffer the worst outcomes. Low academic performance, high rates of depression, and more unhealthy behaviours like smoking.
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When does adolescence begin?
with the onset of puberty
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What are primary sex characteristics?
Body structures such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia that make sexual reproduction possible.
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What are secondary sex characteristics?
nonreproductive body structures such as hips, torso, voices, and body hair that make the body look more adult.
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Do differences in when puberty begins matter for boys?
For boys, early puberty comes with many advantages, especially being bigger and stronger than one’s peers, which often leads to improved social status. Early-maturing boys are more likely to be successful athletes, more popular, and more confident socially. Early-maturing boys are more likely to be successful athletes, more popular, and more confident socially
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Do differences in when puberty begins matter for female?
early maturation can be less advantages than it is for boys. For early maturing girls changing bodies makes it harder to fit in with peers and can attract unwelcome attention from older boys. Associated with greater risk of psychological problems, social anxiety, fear of embarassment. As adults, early-maturing girls tend to be less successful and report being less satisfied with relationships and with life. Less strong impacts if people live in stable homes.
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What are rapid changes in the adolescent body accompanied by?
equally rapid changes in the brain. Synaptic growth and pruning. Happens in the prefrontal cortex. enable improved self-control and judgment, and long-term planning. The revved up limbic system increases reward sensitivity.
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What is our social identity?
a sense of identity that is rooted in group membership
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What is our social identity?
a sense of identity that is rooted in group membership
