Development of ToM

Question 1

Theory of Mind is the idea that people hold__________

Answer 1

mental states which govern behaviour

Question 2

If a child has a desire based ToM, they understand what?

Answer 2

That their own desires differ from the desires others and are subjective.

Question 3

Repacholi and Gopnik (1997) showed that at age ____ months children do not have understanding of different desires, however at age ____ months they develop this ability.

Answer 3

14 months - no
18 months - yes

Question 4

A belief based ToM refers to a child’s understanding that _________________ differs from ________ as well as other people’s ___________.

Answer 4

ToM - their beliefs differ from reality as well as others beliefs

Question 5

What type of task infers if a child can separate their own belief from others or from reality?
A False knowledge task
B False understanding task
C False belief task
D True belief task

Answer 5

C False belief task

Question 6

What are the two main tasks to test false beliefs? Give an example of each

(Wimmer & Perner, 1983), (Gopnik & Astington, 1988)

Answer 6

Unexpected transfer task - Maxi and his chocolate
Deceptive box task - smarties box

Question 7

In the unexpected transfer task, a 3 year old (failing the task) will typically say maxi will look for his chocolate where?

Answer 7

In the fridge - where it currently is

Question 8

In the unexpected transfer task, maxi leaves is chocolate in the _________, but his mother puts it in the __________

Answer 8

Cupboard
fridge

Question 9

In the deceptive box test (smarties), a child answering that their friend will say ______ is inside the box, is indicative of a child passing the test?
A They say their friend will say a pen
B they say their friend will say smarties
C they say their friend will say nothing is in the box
D They say their friend will say raisins are inside the box

Answer 9

B smarties in the smarty box

Question 10

Gopnik and Astington found that children aged 3 will
A Fail to acknowledge previous false belief
B Acknowledge previous false belief
C There was mixed evidence at age 3
D Will acknowledge others false beliefs

Answer 10

A Fail to acknowledge previous false belief

Question 11

According to false belief tasks there is a radical conceptual change at around what age
A 4 Months B 2 years C 4 Years D 7 years

Answer 11

C 4 years

Question 12

Bartsch and Wellman found that whilst ToM may not be seen in a task, it can be revealed in ____________ _________ _______________.

Answer 12

spontaneous natural conversations

Question 13

One criticism of original false belief tasks is issues with __________ and _____________ of the questions?

Answer 13

phrasing and language

Question 14

In a meta-analysis, Wellman et al found that what 2 variables did not effect performance in various Tom tasks?

Answer 14

Type of task/question
Nature of protaganist/object

Question 15

True or false, Wellman et al failed to support the claim that children develop ToM of false beliefs around age 4

Answer 15

false

Question 16

In a cross cultural study, callaghan et al found that children under 3 years, ____ out of 96 failed false belief tasks, whereas in 5 year olds, only ____ out of 85 failed false belief tasks

Answer 16

83/96 failure at age 3
13/85 failure at age 5

Question 17

What are the 2 main factors contributing to the development of ToM?

Answer 17

Role of social experience via interactions
Biological maturation of executive function

Question 18

Harris et al found that early ________________ were crucial in children understanding the perspective of others and developing ______________

Answer 18

early conversations
vocabulary

Question 19

What 2 things were found to increase ToM performance in terms of social experience in normal hearing people?
And what factor in deaf children?

Answer 19

Having older siblings
parents speaking about mental states
deaf children also with deaf parents

Question 20

Wellman and Liu created a scale of ToM, in what order?

Answer 20

Different desires
Different beliefs
Knowledge access
False beliefs
Hidden emotion

Question 21

Wellman et al 2006, found that what 2 aspects of the ToM scale were switched in Iranian and Chinese children?
A False beliefs and hidden emotion
B False beliefs and knowledge access
C Different desires and different beliefs
D Different beliefs and knowledge access

Answer 21

D DB and KA

Question 22

What are the 3 main types of executive/ cognitive functions?

Answer 22

Inhibition
Cognitive flexibility
working memory

Question 23

Inhibition refers to ignoring ____________ _____ and suppressing ___________ __________

Answer 23

ignoring distracting info
supressing unwanted responses

Question 24

In children, what task is used to test Inhibition?

A Bear task
B Shark task
C Dragon task
D Both A and C

Answer 24

D both bear task and dragon task

Question 25

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to do what?

Answer 25

respond to the same thing in different ways under different context

Question 26

The executive function which involves holding important goal based info in your mind is known as what? A Inhibition B Cognitive flexibility C Working memory D None of the above

Answer 26

C Working memory

Question 27

What 2 memory techniques are used to test working memory?

Answer 27

Digit span spatial span

Question 28

Diamond and Taylor found that frontal lobe developments, which are important for inhibition, develop between ages __-__

Answer 28

3-6

Question 29

Carlson et al found a strong correlation between __________ control tasks and _______ belief tasks

Answer 29

inhibitory control false beliefs

Question 30

Implicit measures of ToM use what 3 tasks as evidence that ToM develops earlier than thought?

Answer 30

Emotional response Anticipatory looking Violation of expectancy

Question 31

Moll et al found that children as young as 3 will display what facial expression in response to a false belief, despite failing explicit FB tasks?

Answer 31

suspense - lip biting, eyebrow change

Question 32

In an anticipatory looking task, where 'Sam' is looking for cheese, 86% of 3 year olds will look where? A Longer at where Sam thinks the cheese is B Longer at where the cheese actually is C Equally at both locations D At neither location

Answer 32

A Longer at where Sam thinks

Question 33

Longer looking time at where Sam thinks the cheese is indicates what?

Answer 33

Implicit measure of false belief knowledge - surprise and therefore knowledge

Question 34

Onishi and Baillargeon studied violation of expectancy in infants as young as ________ months old.

Answer 34

15 month olds

Question 35

In violation of expectancy tasks, children look longer at ___________ A Consistent events B Impossible events C Inconsistent events D Both B and C

Answer 35

D Both b and c

Question 36

What were the 4 conditions in Onishi and Baillargeon's violation of expectancy tasks? Which 2 conditions will infants look for longer at?

Answer 36

false belief - experimenter looks where item is - yes false belief - experimenter looks where item is not true belief - experimenter looks where item is true belief - experimenter looks where item is not- yes

Question 37

In Apperly and Butterfill's dual route process model of children's ToM, what is system 1 and 2?

Answer 37

1 = fast, efficient, error prone 2 = slow, effortful, reliable