developmental 2 Flashcards

Question

wisconsin card task

Answer 1

cognitive flexibility more difficult - task for the participant is to deduce the correct sorting criterion on the basis of feed- back and to flexibly switch sorting rules when- ever the experimenter gives feedback that criterion has changed. younger children and older adults tend to excercise EFs reactively, but older children and younger adults are more planful and anticpatory 7-21 year olds - shift costs decreasing with each age group but 15 yo do not differ from adults

Answer 2

more complex - harder to isolate spatial stroop to separate - minimal demands on memory - n order to be flexible have to inhibit - describes as a melting pot of executive function - new model is a domain general function of inhibition that can drive the others

Answer 3

wu et al 2011 - 3 factor model of shifts, wm and inhibition in children ages 7-11 also 2 and 4 factor loadings too many tests - hard to pinpint specific skills being assessed

Answer 4

- children <4 predicted by inhibition, >4 predicted by working memory - there is conceptual abiguity - leads to perseveration - giving a response that is appropriate for a previous set of rules but no longer appropriate under the prevailing rule

Answer 5

- progressive change - myelination, synaptogenesis etc - regressive change - cell death, pruning, less gm - physical maturation of the frontal lobe parallels the advances in cognitive abilities throughout childhood and adolescence

Answer 6

neurons multiply at very fast rate, most active in prenatal dev

Answer 7

6-12m - increases in dendritic trees in layer III - more connection and communication 12-18m - peak in synaptogenesis in middle frontal gyrus synaptogenesis in PFC in first decade of life sees reduction in synapses in AD and adulthood

Answer 8

g99 - gm increases in frontal and parietal, peaks age 10 girls 12 boys then decreases g04 - loss of GM density starting at puberty in the sensorimotor areas, and then spreading over the frontal cortex (rostrally) and the parietal and then temporal cortex (caudally)

Answer 9

loses gm fast maturation in structural and metabolic changes in 1st year late maturation to frontal lobe compared to others

Answer 10

measure changes of concentration of oxy and doexy haemoglobinin response to stimuli to link prf and executive functions

Answer 11

children display weaker functional connectivity between the lateral pFC, ACC, inferior parietal cortex during cognitive flexibility tasks. - **At 3yo: Weak neural interactions within the frontal cortex and unrefined frontoparietal connectivity** - **At 4.5yo: Stronger neural connections and a refined pathways with efficient connectivity** → this confirms the involvement of the PFC in the early EF and the PFC doesnt work in isolation

Answer 12

qual englehart et al 2009 - overlapped areas but still distinct different areas in activation quant 13-14 year olds there is diffusion of connectivity across the brain - there is dense and unrefined spread of activity which reduces with age. this is because there are more efficient connections

Answer 13

subset of communication (transmission) comprehension of words and sentences to convey ideas and information

Answer 14

believed human language is a system of remarkable complexity and that our brains were designed to absorb and acquire language

Answer 15

b - inference, navigation, TOM, exec function, control n - speech, hierarchical system, syntax, pragmatics

Answer 16

- phoneme - smallest unit that when changed, changes the meaning of the word - phonetics is the production and perception of speech sounds in any language - phone - speech sound (letters and sounds)

Answer 17

1. langauge for diff purposes, they is said changes response 2. change according to needs of situation or listener 3. following rules, taking turns, on topic

Answer 18

whole object constraint - assuming words refer to whole object rather than its parts shape bias - will generalise words to similar shape objects for noun learning

Answer 19

use referential words - in many contexts such as "more" context bound worlds - only used in a specific context such as “duck” when playing in the bath. these words are mapped onto the global construction of the event and gradually analysed into individual categories (such as ducks in the park and duck beneath something)

Answer 20

- we are sensitive to syntactic and semantic correspondences from an early age - we extract meanings of new words from syntactic clues - can understand a new object such as a “ball” and what it does from its place in a sentence

Answer 21

12-18m - one world stage 18m - 50 words 18-22m - function words 18-14 - two words 24m+ longer utterances and grammar 4yo - over-regularization (runned not ran)

Answer 22

difficulties understanding and using language breakdown of communication - may understand but not have words/skills to response children negotiate through play

Answer 23

speech, language and communication needs may be speech sounds, clarity, sentences, listening or conversational issues

Answer 24

- 10% children of all children have long term scln - 7% of all children have scln - 1% children have severe and complex scln

Answer 25

doherty sneddon acredolo and goodwyn created this pros- larger and expressive vocab, mental dev, reduction in frustration tantrums and better relations. also benefits children with learning difficulties (competence, intelligibility and speech dev) cons - benefits to deaf children not methologically sound, not scientific (anecdotal), need better controls

Answer 26

object permanence - objects will continue to exist out of sight this requires mental representation - which is planning and deferred imitation (a not b error until 12m but can search for objectd at 8-9m)

Answer 27

reflex activity (innate) primary circular reactions 1-4m secondary circular reactions 4-10m coordination of secondary circular reactions 10-12m tertiary circular reactions 12-18m internal representation 18-24m

Answer 28

p - 1-4m, simple behaviours from reflex, focusing on body parts and repeating behaviour, cannot differentiate self from external world s - 4-10, own behaviours, intentionally change surroundings, connection between body and external movements

Answer 29

10-12m,variety of actions to engage with objects, means-end behviours (moving stuff out way), not insightful trial-error(lack flexibility) a-not-b till 12m (reward is always under a, until under b, still looks at a)

Answer 30

t - 12-18m, still repetitive/circular behaviours, understand trial and error but not insightful, improving problem solving ir - 28-24m, can map out world,thinking/planning actions, insight and deferred imitations

Answer 31

methods observations, own children need quant and standardised confounds in abilities coordination and motor planning deficits -> infants cannot perform means-end infants have memory deficits communication may be biased by cues stages may be earlier - need easier procedure and dif dvs

Answer 32

a not b error 3 conditions -> normal (object perm), object covered, and uncovered babies made errors in all 3 - a not b may be lack of coordination but lack of object permanence

Answer 33

a not b change stand not sit in B trial 10m performed like 12m , standing not A less salient, children reassessed surroundings and made right choice

Answer 34

few months old infants shown object, then hide behind screen - either appears or disappears hr shows shows surprise in empty conditions have some knowledge of absent objects

Answer 35

car rolling down ramp into box/through infants understood box continued to exist (expect to stop in impossible) as young as 5m show object permanence and supports the idea that failure on previous tests result of interaction with other cog abilities 2004 - said infants understood continuity/solidarity and 2.5m - innate/v quick believes object permanence isnt isolated conceptual attainment (need dev of time, space and causality)

Answer 36

indicates limited awareness, may be novelt unsure if looking preferences really tell us about what babies know schoner and thelen 2006 - babies in Baillargeon only looked longer at the impossible event if they saw it first and those that saw the possible event first did not reliably dishabituate to either the possible/impossible when shows

Answer 37

clifton et al 1991 - infants made appropriate grip to reach for object in darkness - said based on mental reps claxton et al 2003 - 10m olds had slower reaching for precise actions - planned williats - novel planning of actions (mental reps) 9m could move barrier and reach object on cloth

Answer 38

meltzoff and moore 1994 - can repeat expression 1 day later on neutral face meltzoff 1995 - 4 month delay, reproduce observed reaction at 14 and 16m

Answer 39

had to repeat puppet actions after 24hrs 3 repetitions - could not 6 repetitions 6m scored sig night, some evidence for deferred 2007- replicated using videos

Answer 40

patel et al 2013 full flexibility and generalisation across contexts not given until 12m for puppet paradigm

Answer 41

- Children not born with fully developed object concept, but develop it over time - Certain behaviours/abilities seem to emerge in similar order no piaget - Children develop some aspects of mental representation earlier than Piaget suggested - ̶Contrary to the discrete stage view?

Answer 42

gelam and gallistel 1978 one-to-one - one tag for each item stage order - tags must be used in same way (not 312) cardinal - tag of final number represents total number (9 = 9 items not 10) order irrelevence - up/down abstraction - can be applied to any collection of objects, including intangible ones

Answer 43

3-5yolds - ncorrect trials - one to one was 67-82% 3-4yrs, stable order have 76-96 3-4/5yrs, and cardinal had 85-99% 3-4/5yrs accuracy - pseudo error were detected as peculiar but not incorrect with 95% + accuracy and could even say why in some cases

Answer 44

children as young as 3 had implicit knowledge of numbers success not limited by set rate (how high), could point out come errors here identification of errors without counting themselves show thy know in principle what it is to count but struggle putting this into practice age 3 - struggled with stable order and jump in list - what errors they make, but spotted reversals and random numbers cardinality easiest to detect

Answer 45

order irrelevance and cardinality 5-7yrs can understand that tags can be assigned but it does not imply understanding that differently ordered counts produce the same cardinal designation (total) struggled to understand when making 8 -> 1 and counting back 45% 5 87% 7 order irrelevance comes with age, understanding overestimated

Answer 46

failure was due to misinterpreting instructions not lack of understanding replication gave the children 3 opportunities to count first, asked can you start with n and how many will there be maybe choose dif answer bc think think it is wrong

Answer 47

asked to give n items up to 4 knowers (e.g. 2 = can give 2 consistently) after 4 - grasp cardinality and can answer flexibility and understand how counting works

Answer 48

looking time in different maths equations - looked longer at incorrect (did not expect) concluded 5m can calc precise results of simple operations ex 3: 1+1 trial with final outcome being 2 or 3. infants significantly preferred the 3 option - showing surprise at an extra item

Answer 49

controlled for idea that preferred is always higher, found not preference of correct/incorrect inconsistent results in lit review argues for gradual process adding and subtracting are not innate but are competencies that develop over several years

Answer 50

blamed procedural differences for the attentiveness of infants such as computer program vs experimenter to determine start wynn removed more fussy babies

Answer 51

often very good at discriminating between numbers of food or defences some evidence of counting.operations grey parrot alex - 0 concept

Answer 52

language and counting practices impact representation and processing of numbers number talk from parents predicts cp knowledge related to later performance in school (when talking about present small sets)

Answer 53

we have innate abilities: approx number system to estimate and discriminate, and object tracking system - track up to 3-4 learned - exact counting and arithmetic builds over time, not innate, language builds on innate systems

Answer 54

number words - allow cardinality (total) counting through practice object tracking is expanded by number words cultural experiences predict trajectory of learning

Answer 55

is result of interaction between child and MKO culture provides context language provide means for sharing cog processes were not individual, and influenced by culture (such as schooling)

Answer 56

contrast to piaget external monologue is important as a tool for thought to organise and plan - in inner speech at 7 piaget sees this as egocentrism

Answer 57

create scaffolding stages recruitment reducing degrees of freedom (no of steps) direction maintenance (motivation) marking critical features demonstration

Answer 58

humans have cumulative culture, bc they imitate (peel orange in spiral), chimps emulate (bit into orange, will do any way for end goal) cultural intelligence hypothesis - have special soc-cog skills (tom, cooperation, imitation, teaching etc) natural tendency to teach and share info

Answer 59

human-specific ability to learn cultural information through communication. It's a cognitive adaptation that allows people to acquire knowledge quickly and efficiently. a - sensitivity to ostensive signals like eye contact that indicate communication to infants b - referential expectation (satisfied by the use of declarative gestures) c- a biased interpretation of ostensive-referential communication as conveying relevant info

Answer 60

children are primed to attend to demonstrator cues children have overimitation - will follow irrelevent steps to open box children learn through opaque technologies and arbitrary cultural customs

Answer 61

lewis and brooks gun 1979 will smile and touch own nose with rouge - recognising the baby as themselves at 21 and 24 months but can develop from 15m

Answer 62

povinelli et al 1996 sicker on head and filmed shown after delay - old 3 and 4yo would reach for sticker (concept of continuation) tsos develops after 3

Answer 63

familiarity - behave differs or strangers 7-9m and distinguish peers 10-12m gender - discriminate 9-12, verbal labels at 19m age - children and adults 6-12m, labels 18-24m

Answer 64

few months gain primary emotions - happy, sad, interest, anger 2-3 years embarrassment pride and shame - culturally complex

Answer 65

haviland and lelwice 1987 from 10 weeks copy mothers happy/angry, and will chew/mouth/suck at sadness use social referencing - choose reaction based on mothers response (falling over)

Answer 66

tronick highly replicated still face for 2 mins - baby will first look confused, then tries to get mothers attention by smiling, pointing, then cries out of frustration - babies in the experiment often lose postural control → cns is overwhelmed - towards end of experiment baby withdraws prolonged still face - struggle to trust and regulate

Answer 67

have "excessive" reactions - crying and distress children may show joy/interest in aggressive episodes - source of interaction mahady wilton 2000 - children who are easily aroused and struggle regulating their emotions are at higher risk of regulation dysfunction - emotional states overwhelm coping processes

Answer 68

self awareness - 18-20m expressing emotions 2yrs capacity for pretence - 2-3- pretend something is something else distinguishing reality from pretence 3-4yrs these combined lead to TOM

Answer 69

long story about maxi's chocolate only answerewd correctly 4+, mostly 5-9 issue: long and complicated story, sally anne at 4

Answer 70

2+ - express wants 3+ using cog terms like know, remember, contrast reality/belief 3-4 understand means =know 3 - struggle to understand 2 dif representations at the same time

Answer 71

2yo - people have desires 3rs - people have beliefs do not understand that other people can act on incorrect belief

Answer 72

2-3yo might look at right place but identify wrong some false beleif evidence from 15m wellman et al 2001 review 180 false belief tasks - some 2, some 3 and most 4+

Answer 73

birch and bloom 2007 knowledge is hard to suppress when needing answer for what someone else thinks

Answer 74

understand surpise at 5+ some 4 and mostly 5s will decieve - lie about sticker to robber puppet

Answer 75

osterhaus and bosacki 2022 review found individual diffs in tests were related to inhibition not empathy

Answer 76

conceptual change 3-5 develop concept of representation - differences of 3-4yo understanding devs gradually not sudden, realist tendency overrides understanding of beliefs tasks reduce complexity/cognitive demands show success at younger ages; ongoing development and perhaps some decline on certain measures with older age

Answer 77

computational - strategies to recieve/apply retrieval - have strategies but retrieve wrong one storage -> retain working memory workspace -> limited WM items

Answer 78

tokens in a bag - children did not consistently pick higher frequency item brainerd - not encoding problem, retrieval problem as children were guided by previous answer

Answer 79

evolution - survival of kin eisenberg 1983 - more likely to help family/friends/similar background reputation/acceptance innate - from early age socially learned - adult responses to behaviour are important

Answer 80

1st birthday

Answer 81

artificial environment (donation game, explicit scaffolding and models) no effect of modelling ps behaviour after 3 week follow up - children are looking for the right answer - may be measuring age diffs in conformity

Answer 82

18m - experimenter looked at object, child then verbalised children more likely to help when expression was for help often immediate helping, failures only due to restrictions chimps only helped in reaching (most pop for children) interpreting the need for help

Answer 83

premoral - up to age 4 moral realism - 4-10 inflexible rules from higher authority moral subjectivism 10+ - mutually agreed rules, flexible confirmed cross culturally by linaza 1984

Answer 84

which child is naughtiest - accidental or purpose, but not equal outcome (1 cup vs 12 cups) up to 9/10 children judge based on damage not motive issues with rules and memory demands smetana 1981 - 5yrs can judge intention when damage is the same

Answer 85

preconven 1. authority 2. risk and benefit conven 3. interpersonal relations 4. society as a whole, social order postconven 5. society and rights 6. universal ethical

Answer 86

relaibility increased by standardised scoring - colby et al 1987 culture - snarey 1985 - stage 5 only urban society - bias to individualism gender - gilligan, females is people before principles

Answer 87

wing and gould 1979 social interaction -> eye contact peer relation communication -> language and imagination restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour -> narrow interests, routine, compulsions

Answer 88

defined behavioural criteria -> some signs 12-18m, typically 3+ and may be undiagnosed increases due to diagnostic material and understanding impairments

Answer 89

repetitive restricted behaviours due to impaired exec function, and correlations between this and TOM weak central coherence -> typically dev people process incoming info globally but WCC biases for features and local info. explains good rote memory and special abilities

Answer 90

short story - asked why they said something they do not mean even those who passed second order tom impaired may be overlap with langage issues

Answer 91

baron cohen et al 1997 addresses TOM over age 6 - choose correct emotion - Autistic group significantly impaired compared to TD group and Tourette Syndrome group - tests criticised by autistic people

Answer 92

gernsbacher and yergeau empirical failures of the claim that autistic people lack theory of mind 2019

Answer 93

found in baron cohen convergent validity -> perfomance and many tom taks not correlated (SS and eyes) predictive validity - tom doesn't predict empathy, social skills, peer relations and more

Answer 94

G and Y more aytypical a child is, more likely to fail task - downs, williams, pradar-willi, epilepsy, FAS, SES, siblings etc TOM is not autism specific deficit - BC

Answer 95

G and Y even in original study 20% pass tom relies on spoken language, 1/2 variability for false belief and 3/4 happe's eyes needs lanaguage for complex emotion

Answer 96

explain differences between NT and ND autistic and non-autistic people have different social communication systems and there’s a breakdown of mutual understanding transactional model - how A acts and if perceived changes how others acts towards them, that is perceived and loops back to acts

Answer 97

autistic ppl long to socialise, if you assume otherwise this will affect how you act, thus reinforcing behaviour

Answer 98

J and A cultural differences vbary in china (rude) and gussi of kenya (uncommon) gussi of kenya replace eyes with touch functional adaptation - infants look away to lower hr - overstimulating autistic people avert to balance cog load look at mouths - effort to hear not watch

Answer 99

declarative point 12m say autistic only point to obtain - no interest in sharing info/experience actually BC show 6/10 do not point at all may be motor deficit, not social bc checklist - 9/10 parents said no pointing

Answer 100

cause unknown - culturally undesirable infancy - animals raised in social isolation exhibit stereotyped motor movements, suggesting that autistic infants may suffer from restricted environment caused by their social withdrawal however - social impairment does not affect repetitive/restrictive behaviours in NT or ND children -> perceiving something does not mean it is true

Answer 101

storm and stress - is identity crisis as individuals struggle to find out who they are

Answer 102

diffusion - not thought about seriously foreclosure - formed identity commitment without exploring moratorium - considering alternatives achievement of identity

Answer 103

men - meilman 1979 measured and said that men felt that their identity had developed 50% by age 22 oconnell 1976 reported on women and that they hadn't got identity until sent children to school temporal validity concerns - expectations. also, moratorium states can appear at different times for different areas, and we are scaffolded up to our identity, being led by parental values, and society

Answer 104

rutter et al 1976 - 1/6 parents report, 1/3 children report - even in conflict it tends to be day-to-day rather than extreme. idea is that ad try to develop autonomy in a safe environment in home - testing boundaries also - rutter noted moderate mood disruptions compared to 10yo (now need to understand modern effects on mood)

Answer 105

piaget's formal operations: logic, inferential reasoning, planning,hypotheticals end of theory - limited to straightforward situations kramer 1983 created postformal thinking with 3 themes realisation of relativistic nature of knowledge acceptance of contradiction integration of contradictions into full concepts

Answer 106

vetter et al strange stories and eyes show that young/mid ad performed with lower accuracy than late ads there are individua differences in basic cog abilities. Gender did not influence age diffs

Answer 107

willis and schale 1999 - inductive reasoning, verbal mem and spatial orientation peaks 4-60yrs. peak in career, may be some conflict in generativity vs stagnation

Answer 108

verbal recall contrinues to increase - influenced by reading salthouse 2012 - Little evidence of relation between age and functioning in society when looking at 20-75yr old experience matters - more important than age or reaction time in a crash risk – apply to policy – should pilots retire at a certain age?

Answer 109

finkel et al 1998 - largest difference is perceptual speed decrease on 14 cog abilities salthouse - terminal decline tends to happens a few years before death - What affects cog decline – relationship between health and cog, type of job and genetics (about 24% accountable for changes in intelligence through adulthood using people who had taken tests age 11, now at 80 and took dna samples. People who are more genetically similar had more similar intelligence)

developmental 2 Flashcards

(133 cards)