Developmental Flashcards

Question

Describe a process of classical conditioning on a baby.

Answer 1

UCS breast milk --> UCR sucking. Present neutral stimulus - head stroking with UCS. neutral stimulus then envokes sucking.

Answer 2

+ Positive reinforcement - rewarded with positive stuff. negative reinforcement - rewarded by stopping an ongoing negative experiment. - punishment - behaviour is penalised. extinction - nothing happens.

Answer 3

Infants of depressed mothers tend to smile less and show lower levels of positive affect than do infants of non-depressed mothers This may be because infants of depressed mothers have learned there is no contingency relation between such friendly displays and being rewarded by their preoccupied parent (Campbell et al., 1995)

Answer 4

The ability to imitate the behaviour of others appears to be present early in life, although in an extremely limited form In choosing to imitate a model, infants appear to pay attention to the reason for the person’s behaviour (i.e., the person’s intention)

Answer 5

When 18-month-olds see a person apparently try, but fail, to pull the ends off a dumbbell, they infants imitate the action by actually pulling the ends off i.e., They perform the action the person intended to do, not what the person actually did (Meltzoff, 1995) They do not imitate a mechanical device at all

Answer 6

Aristotle rejected the prevailing idea that the individual was preformed at the start of life in favor of epigenesis

Answer 7

Fallopian tubes

Answer 8

Y sperm lighter/faster. | However males miscarridge more and are vulnerable to more disorders.

Answer 9

Germinal conception - 2 weeks Embryonic 3rd - 8th week Fetal 9th week - birth.

Answer 10

when the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall. | rapid cell division.

Answer 11

from the splitting in half of the inner cell mass, resulting in the development of genetically identical individuals.

Answer 12

when two eggs are released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by different sperm.

Answer 13

cell division: results in proliferation of cells cell migration: movement of cells from point of origin to other locations in embryo cell differentiation: transformation of stem cells into roughly 350 different types of cell cell death: selective death of certain cells (apoptosis) Also involves hormonal influences (testosterone) the inner cell mass becomes the embryo and the rest of the cells develop into its support system. The neural tube is a U-shaped groove formed from the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo. It eventually becomes the brain and the spinal cord.

Answer 14

Placenta: permits the exchange of materials between the bloodstream of the fetus and that of the mother Umbilical cord: the tube that contains the blood vessels that travel from the placenta to the developing organism and back again

Answer 15

The placental membrane is a barrier against some, but not all toxins and infectious agents. The amniotic sac, a membrane filled with fluid in which the fetus floats, provides a protective buffer for the fetus

Answer 16

By 12 weeks after gestation, most of the movements that will be present at birth have appeared.

Answer 17

Swallowing amniotic fluid promotes the normal development of the palate and aids in the maturation of the digestive system. Movement of the chest wall and pulling in and expelling small amounts of amniotic fluid help the respiratory system become functional.

Answer 18

The fetus experiences tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity, and tastes and smells the amniotic fluid It responds to sounds from at least the 6th month of gestation

Answer 19

At 32 weeks’ gestation, the fetus decreases responses to repeated or continued stimulation - habituation. Newborns also prefer smells, tastes, and sound patterns that are familiar because of prenatal exposure

Answer 20

Environmental agents that have the potential to cause harm during prenatal development

Answer 21

Timing. | Many agents cause damage only if exposure occurs during a sensitive period in development

Answer 22

sleeper effects in which the impact of a given agent may not be apparent for many years.

Answer 23

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is associated with delays in cognitive development, facial deformity, and other problems. Alcohol can cross the placenta. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy is linked to reduced growth and low birth weight. Cigarette smoking has also been linked to SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), although the ultimate causes of SIDS are still unknown.

Answer 24

``` Most spent in Active sleep and Quiet sleep. Crying Active awake Alert awake Drowsing ```

Answer 25

brain activity during REM sleep in the fetus and newborn makes up for natural deprivation of external stimuli and facilitates the early development of the visual system REM sleep constitutes fully 50% of a newborn’s total sleep time and declines rapidly to only 20% by 3 or 4 years of age

Answer 26

Rapid eye movement.

Answer 27

Infants weighing less than 5.5 pounds (2,500 grams)

Answer 28

LBW infants born at or before 35 weeks after conception

Answer 29

A constructionalist. Comes from the interaction between the child and its environment, they construct knowledge themselves.

Answer 30

As little scientists. Learn lessons on their own and motivated intrinsically to do so.

Answer 31

Constructionist Stage Theory Invariant sequence Universal

Answer 32

Assimilation - The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they can understand. A chef learning a new cooking technique Accommodation - The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences. Equilibration - The process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.

Answer 33

Due to the hierarchial stages he uses.

Answer 34

Sensorimotor birth - 2yr Pre-Operational 2 -7 yr Concrete Operational 7 -12 yr Formal Operational 12+ yr dont need to know ages.

Answer 35

Infants get to know the world through their senses and through their actions. Object permanence: the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view, typically emerges by about 8 months After attaining object permanence, children make the A-Not-B error (the tendency to reach to where objects were found before, rather than where they were last hidden) until about 12 months Deffered imitation - repeating others behaviours.

Answer 36

8-12 months

Answer 37

Toddlers and young children start to rely on internal representations of the world based on language and mental imagery. symbolic representation, the use of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviours possible. banana phone A major limitation is egocentrism, the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view. 3 mountains task. conservation errors, where they incorrectly believe that merely changing the appearance of objects can change their quantity. juice/coins

Answer 38

“centration” – focus on one perceptually salient aspect of the stimulus and ignore the other stimulus dimensions.

Answer 39

Children begin to reason logically about the world, conservation errors no longer occur, but Thinking systematically remains difficult. Piaget's pendulum problem, Children below age 12 usually perform unsystematic experiments and draw incorrect conclusions. The task is to compare the motions of longer and shorter strings, with lighter and heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight, string length, and dropping point on the time it takes for the pendulum to swing back and forth

Answer 40

Cognitive development culminates in the ability to think abstractly and to reason hypothetically. Not universal, depending on environment and education.

Answer 41

The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it is (but e.g., conservation of number vs. solid-quantity) Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized. Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development (what about the role of other people in the child’s development?) Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children’s thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth (what processes lead children to think in a particular way?) Individual differences are not always taken into account.

Answer 42

72% correct responses in teddy condition where transformations occurred ‘accidentally’ (a naughty teddy spoils the game). the child assumes if an adult does something it must mean something has changed.

Answer 43

little social beings. The sociocultural approach to child development. His theory presents children as social beings, intertwined with other people who are eager to help them gain skills and understanding It sees development as continuous, with change as quantitative rather than qualitative

Answer 44

Focus on the contribution of other people and the surrounding culture to children’s development. Emphasize guided participation, a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage in them at a higher level than they could manage on their own. Present interactions as occurring in a broader sociocultural context that includes cultural tools, the innumerable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking

Answer 45

Lower mental functions are regarded as elementary mental abilities closely tied to biological processes that are innate and involuntary, and involve simple perception, memory and responding directly to the environment. Higher mental functions are regarded as consciously controlled transformations of lower functions that are developed through cultural mediation, and involve voluntary attention, conceptual thought and logical planning.

Answer 46

the transmission of knowledge through social interactions with other people - higher mental functions.

Answer 47

These include language, values, skills and other symbolic systems that represent the shared knowledge of a culture. change with each society.

Answer 48

Eventually, a child understands a cultural tool and can use it independently (i.e., without the help of social interaction).

Answer 49

egocentric or private speech. Helps guide behaviour Used more when tasks are difficult, after errors, or when confused Gradually becomes more silent Children with learning and behavioural problems use it for longer External-to-internal develops with age, but also experience

Answer 50

1. Children’s behaviour is controlled by other people’s statements Parent/guardian instruction 2. Children’s behaviour is controlled by their own private speech Most prevalent between 4-6 years, though also common in older children and adults during complex tasks 3. Children’s behaviour is controlled by internalised private speech Speech “goes underground” and becomes thought The transition into silent thought often involves whispers and lip movements

Answer 51

The mutual understanding that people share during communication. Joint attention: A process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment. Social referencing: The tendency to look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar or threatening events.

Answer 52

Refers to the range of performance between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal support. Vygotsky aimed to challenge child in the zone.

Answer 53

A process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own (into the ZPD).

Answer 54

Play with peers is one way that children can stretch their performance into the ZPD. Playing games involves rules and roles, allowing the child to learn how to: Separate ideas from objects (conceptual development) Self-regulate behaviour (social development)

Answer 55

General : The child has to explore the world on her own – social factors can make a difference but it is the child who has to find out independently about the world and people. Language : Language develops together with other skills, mirroring other skills. Early speech : Early speech is egocentric, but with development it can function for social communication (inner to outer). Education : The content and level of teaching has to be adjusted to where the child is in her development.

Answer 56

General : The child needs parents and other adults to teach her – social interactions have a significant contribution to make to the child’s cognitive development. Language : Language does not just reflect the child’s skills, it can work as a tool for the child. But because language is a necessary tool for cognitive development, it can interfere with the child’s development. Early speech : Early speech is adaptive to social interaction, and once it is mastered it is then internalised (outer to inner). Education : Teaching should aim to challenge the child by giving tasks just above her actual competence into the Zone of Proximal Development.

Answer 57

children’s early relationships with parents influence the nature of their interactions with others from infancy into adulthood, as well as their feelings about their own worth.

Answer 58

John Bowlby, further tested by Mary Ainsworth. children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival. attachment is developed over 4 phases to a secure base – an attachment figure’s presence that provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment

Answer 59

. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows. 2. Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months) The phase in which infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1-2 years) Characterized by the infant’s actively seeking contact with their regular caregivers and typically showing separation protest or distress when the caregiver departs. 4. Reciprocal relationships (from 1 or 2 years on) Involves children taking an active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers.

Answer 60

Mary Ainsworth. Varying interactions. Secure attachment is a pattern of attachment in which an infant or child has a high-quality, relatively un-ambivalent relationship with his or her attachment figure. Insecure-avoidant attachment is a type of insecure attachment in which infants seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. If these children become upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver. Insecure-resistant (or ambivalent) attachment is a pattern in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment. Tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room, and are not readily comforted by strangers. When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them. disorganised/ disoriented attachment - no consistent way of coping with stress.

Answer 61

Insecurity along 2 dimensions: Avoidance = deactivation of attachment needs and negative affect Anxiety = hyperactivation of attachment needs and negative affect

Answer 62

18-24 months children recognise themselves.

Answer 63

8 months respond to separation from primary caregivers with separation distress. Mirror test by 18 months. At age 3 to 4, children understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities, and psychological traits. Children begin to refine their conceptions of self in school, in part because they increasingly engage in social comparison.

Answer 64

low testorone, some female characteristics.

Answer 65

elf-identification with male and female (gender identity) and the behaviours that are expected to result (gender roles and stereotyping).

Answer 66

During the first year, infants’ perceptual abilities allow them to distinguish male from female using gender cues Such cues include hairstyle (Intons-Peterson, 1988) and vocal pitch (Martin et al., 2002) By the latter half of their second year, children begin forming gender-related expectations about the kinds of objects and activities that are typically associated with males and females 18-month-olds look longer at a doll than a car after “habituating” to female faces, and a car for male faces (Serbin et al., 2001) Between their second and third birthdays, most children come to know which gender group they belong to and by age 3, to use gender terms (e. g., “boy”) in their speech (Fenson et al., 1994)

Answer 67

Hormones usually higher in males than females. high levels are associated with rough n tumble play in boys. Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a condition in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of hormones that have androgen-like effects, show higher levels of rough-and-tumble play (Nordenstrom et al., 2002) and more interest in boy typical activities than do other girls (Hines et al., 2003)

Answer 68

There may be a higher proportion of cortical grey matter (associated with information processing) in the female brain, whereas the male brain has a higher proportion of white matter (associated with the speed of information transmission). The corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, tends to be larger and more densely structured in the female brain than the male brain, which may improve performance on tasks that require both hemispheres to communicate. Differing densities of connections in areas of the brain associated with language and spatial processing, may be associated with gender-typical patterns of performance.

Answer 69

"Boys don’t cry”, “Girls take ballet” influence behavioural expectations.

Answer 70

Sensation: Refers to the processing of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain

Answer 71

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about the objects, events, and spatial layout of our surrounding world

Answer 72

Sensory input is often ambiguous or incomplete, | Perception organizes sensory input into representations that the brain can use

Answer 73

Preferential-looking: Involves showing infants two patterns or two objects at a time to see if the infants have a preference for one over the other. Habituation: Involves repeatedly presenting an infant with a given stimulus until the response declines.

Answer 74

The sharpness of visual discrimination. The sharpness of infants’ visual discrimination develops so rapidly that it approaches that of adults by age 8 months and reaches full adult acuity by 6 years of age.

Answer 75

An infant’s visual acuity can be estimated by comparing how long the baby looks at a striped pattern such as this one versus a plain gray square of the same size and overall brightness.

Answer 76

This is because the cones (light-receptors) of the eye, which are concentrated in the fovea (the central region of the retina), differ from adults’ in size, shape, and spacing.

Answer 77

(the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas)

Answer 78

The fovea is densely packed with cone cells and rods. colour vision has 3 colours - RBG and is for bright light. the rods are for night vision in low light - no colour.

Answer 79

Very young infants have limited colour vision, although by 2-3 months of age their colour vision is similar to that of adults.

Answer 80

Scanning One-month-olds (a) scan the perimeters of shapes, while two-month-olds (b) scan both the perimeters and the interiors of shapes. Tracking Although infants begin scanning the environment right away, they cannot track even slowly moving objects smoothly until 2 to 3 months of age.

Answer 81

From birth, infants are drawn to faces because of a general bias toward configurations with more elements in the upper half than in the lower half, within 12 hours prefers it's mother's face.

Answer 82

From birth onward, infants look longer at faces that adults find more attractive than those adults rate as less attractive Attractiveness affects behaviour – infants interact more positively with people with attractive faces (Langlois et al., 1990) 12 month old children Very attractive/unattractive woman (same woman – different mask/makeup) Play with child – child more responsive to attractive woman

Answer 83

Slater et al Supporting the nativist position, visual experience does not seem to be necessary for perceptual constancy. If an infant looks at the larger, but farther away cube, researchers will conclude the child has size constancy

Answer 84

Infants as young as 1 month respond to optical expansion, a depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching One-month-old infants will blink defensively at an object that appears to be heading towards them

Answer 85

Process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity (the slightly different signals sent to the brain by the two eyes) Emerges suddenly at around 4 months of age

Answer 86

the perceptual cues of depth that can be achieved by one eye alone. ``` relative size (larger is closer) interposition (nearer objects occlude ones farther away) linear perspective (convergence of parallel lines) ```

Answer 87

Depth perception test. Wearing an eye patch to take away binocular depth information, he is reaching to the longer side of a trapezoidal window. This behaviour indicates that the baby sees it as the nearer, and hence more readily reachable, side of a regular window

Answer 88

Although the human auditory system is relatively well developed at birth, hearing does not approach adult levels until age 5 or 6 Newborns turn toward sounds, a phenomenon referred to as auditory localization.

Answer 89

Preference for sweetness. Newborns (3-4 days) prefer the smell of breast milk, their natural food source (Marlier & Schall, 2005) Regardless of whether they have been breastfed or bottlefed (i.e., have never tasted breast milk) Marlier et al. (1998) Newborn infants prefer the smell of their “own” amniotic fluid relative to than of another baby. Teicher & Blass (1977) Amniotic fluid promotes post-birth feeding behaviour in RATS Baby rats navigate to mother rat for feeding very soon after birth If mother rat is washed immediately after birth – pups don’t find food source

Answer 90

By two weeks of age, babies appear to be able to differentiate the scent of their own mothers from that of other women, an ability shared by a variety of infant mammals

Answer 91

Around 4 months of age, infants gain greater control over their hand and arm movements, and manual exploration gradually takes precedence over oral exploration.

Answer 92

The combining of information from two or more senses. When two videos are presented simultaneously, 4- month-old infants prefer to watch the images that correspond to the sounds they are hearing. Infants held two rings, one in each hand, under a cloth that prevented them from seeing the rings or their own bodies, 2 bars. All the infants were allowed to hold and feel just one or the other type of rings until they had largely lost interest (habituated). They were then shown both types of rings and looked longer at the rings that were different from those they had been exploring with their hands (Streri & Spelke, 1988) Used this to combine facial expressions and emotions.

Answer 93

Rooting - turning head and opening mouth when the cheek is stroked. Goes at 3 weeks old. Sucking - will suck anything put in it's mouth, replaced by voluntary at 4 months old.

Answer 94

Will grasp anything presesd onto the baby's palm/foot from monkeys. up to 4 mo

Answer 95

When the bottom of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant moves it's foot away, the toes fan out and curl. 8-12 months old goes.

Answer 96

If help upright the baby makes stepping movements, up to 2 mo.

Answer 97

if startled by sudden noise/movement the baby throws arms backwards n acts all surprised. up to 6 mo.

Answer 98

neuorological problems.

Answer 99

Early simple reflexes.

Answer 100

More complex, coordinated reflexes

Answer 101

First area of the cortex to develop Responsible for voluntary (nonreflexive) movement Begins with raising head (1 month), control of arms and trunk (3 months); leg control is last to develop

Answer 102

a confluence of many factors, not just neurological maturity.

Answer 103

Thelen et al., performed two experiments to test the hypothesis that rapid increases in infants’ weight made it impossible for them to execute stepping motions. In one experiment, weights were attached to the ankles of infants who still had the stepping reflex, and the babies suddenly stopped stepping. In the second study, infants who no longer showed the stepping reflex were found to do so when they were suspended waist-deep in a tank of water that supported their weight. Therefore, the movement pattern and its neural basis remained but was masked by the changing ratio of leg weight to strength.

Answer 104

At around 8 months of age, infants become capable of self locomotion for the first time as they begin to crawl Learning to move independently involves integrating movement from many different parts of the body

Answer 105

They don't cus they r dumb.

Answer 106

that 6- to 14- month-old infants would not cross the deep side of the cliff, showing they perceived and understood the depth cue of relative size. 1½-month-old infants could perceive the difference in depth but showed no fear of the deep side (heart rate) Early crawlers avoided heights earlier Use social referencing when unsure, would cross if mother looked happy. Research with the visual cliff illustrates the interdependence of different domains of development

Answer 107

that they try to treat a miniature replica object as if it was a much larger real one. why: Dissociation between dorsal/ventral visual processing streams? i.e., what and where pathways some how the visual information for planning an action is not correctly integrated with the system for executing that action 2. Failure to inhibit an automatically afforded action? e. g. “cars are for driving” e. g. “chairs afford sitting” encouraged by coordinator to play, trust them.

Answer 108

doesn't develop until 8 months. | Until then, an infant will not search for an object that has been removed from sight

Answer 109

Possible explanations include memory limitations and problems with inhibitory control associated with immaturity of the prefrontal cortex, and competition between a representational system and a response system. Infants appear more competent when tested via visual-attention measures (e.g., looking times) than when given tests that require them to take action.

Answer 110

Hood & Willatts 1986 - lights go out with an object either side, child reaches to the correct side. 5 months old Violation of expectation.

Answer 111

Baillargeon (1987) and her colleagues have used this technique to establish that infants as young as 3½ months of age look longer at an “impossible” event than at a possible event The infants mentally represented the box (understood object permanence) even when it was occluded and were surprised when the screen seemed to pass through the box Knowledge of gravity begins in the first year Infants have been shown to look longer at objects that violate expected motion trajectories: 7-month-olds are surprised to see a ball roll up a slope unaided (Kim & Spelke, 1992)

Answer 112

Infants who see a human arm repeatedly reach for an object in the same location assume that the action is directed toward the object, not the place (Woodward, 1998) They looked longer when the hand went to the new object in the old place, than when it reached for the old object it had reached to before 12- and 15-month -olds were introduced to a faceless, eyeless, blob that “vocalized” and moved in response to what the infant or experimenter did, thus simulating a normal human interaction (Johnson, 2003) When the blob turned in one direction, the infants looked in that direction (following the blob’s “gaze”) Infants did not behave this way with a blob whose behaviour was not contingently related to their own

Answer 113

Twelve-month-olds also seem able, like adults, to attribute dispositional states (Kuhlmeier et al., 2003) Infants watched a film that adults interpret as a ball “trying and failing” to get up a hill as it is being “helped” by a triangle and being “blocked” by a square Subsequently, with just the three shapes on the screen, infants looking behaviour indicated that they expected the ball to approach the helpful triangle while avoiding the hindering square Predisposed to nice characters and an aversion to unhelpful or mean ones.

Answer 114

Nativists argue that innate understanding of concepts plays a central role in development. Empiricists argue that concepts arise from basic learning mechanisms.

Answer 115

Categorical hierarchies often include three main levels (Rosch et al., 1976) A very general one, the superordinate level (living things) A medium one in between, the basic level (birds) A very specific one, the subordinate level (parrots) Children usually learn the basic level category first, as: Objects at this level share many common characteristics (unlike superordinate level categories) Category members are relatively easy to discriminate (unlike those in subordinate level categories)

Answer 116

A key element in infants’ thinking is perceptual categorization, the grouping together of objects that have similar appearances (colour, size, movement, etc.) Babies (7 months) treated plastic toy birds and airplanes, which are perceptually similar, as if they were members of the same category Babies (9 -11 months) treated toy airplanes and birds as members of conceptually different categories, despite the fact that they looked very much alike (Mandler & McDonough, 1993)

Answer 117

As children approach their second birthday, they increasingly categorize objects on the basis of overall shape. At the same time, they also form categories on the basis of function, and can use their knowledge of categories to determine which actions go with which type of objects For example, 14-month-olds will mime feeding a drink to a toy rabbit but not a toy motorcycle (Mandler & McDonough, 1998)

Answer 118

Increasing understanding of category hierarchies. Increasing understanding causal connections. Both involve knowledge of relations among categories Understanding causal connections – why objects are the way they are – helps children learn and remember new categories Children between 4 and 10 often believe that plants and animals were created to serve specific purposes, much like tools are

Answer 119

Task used by Poulin-Dubois (1999) to study infants’ reactions when they see people and inanimate objects (in this case a robot) engaging in the same action. Both 9- and 12-month-olds show surprise when they see inanimate objects move on their own, suggesting that they understand that self-produced motion is a distinctive characteristic of people and other animals.

Answer 120

Children through age 5 have difficulty understanding that humans are animals (Coley, 1993) Only between ages 7 and 9 do most children understand that plants are living things (Richards & Siegler, 1984) Pre-schoolers know that physical characteristics tend to be passed on from parent to offspring, and that certain aspects of development are controlled by heredity rather than environment

Answer 121

the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are. Children often over-extend their knowledge of heredity and attribute gender differences to inherited essentialism e.g., The belief that boys’ inner “boy-ness” leads them to prefer playing with cars, while girls’ inner “girl-ness” leads them to prefer playing with dolls Only by the age of 9 or 10 do children recognise the influence of the environment on gender differences (Taylor, 1993)

Answer 122

sections of chromosomes, basic unit of heredity in all living things.

Answer 123

Parents’ genetic contribution to the child’s genotype Contributions of the child’s genotype to his or her own phenotype Contribution of the child’s environment to his or her own phenotype Influence of the child’s phenotype on his or her environment

Answer 124

Chromosome 23.

Answer 125

Largely control the continuous switching on and off of genes that underlie development across the lifespan.

Answer 126

The Y chromosome has only about a third as many genes on it as the X chromosome Because many alleles on the X chromosome do not have a corresponding allele on the Y chromosome that could suppress the action, males are more likely than females to suffer a variety of inherited disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X chromosome (e.g., color blindness)

Answer 127

Trisomy 21.

Answer 128

A trait governed by more than 1 gene.

Answer 129

Refers to all the phenotypes that could theoretically result from a given genotype, in relation to all the environments in which it could survive and develop. Potential.

Answer 130

Children with phenylketonuria (PKU)—a disorder that is related to a defective gene on chromosome 12—are unable to metabolize phenylalanine. Present in some foods such as sweeteners. With early diagnosis and a properly restricted diet, however, cognitive impairment resulting from PKU can be avoided. Genotype can result in different phenotypes depending on the environment

Answer 131

Protein coding gene. Young men who had experienced severe maltreatment were in general more likely to engage in antisocial behavior than those who had experienced none However, the effect was much stronger for those individuals who had a relatively inactive MAOA gene

Answer 132

many genes and environment.

Answer 133

A statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a given trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals.

Answer 134

They apply only to populations, not to individuals They apply only to a particular group living at a particular time They can differ markedly for groups of people who grow up in very different environments They say nothing about differences between groups High heritability does not imply immutability

Answer 135

elementary (smallest) units of sound. “rake” and “lake” differ from each other by just one phoneme Phonological development

Answer 136

elementary (smallest) unit of meaning in a language. e.g. un-happy-ness Semantic development:

Answer 137

rules governing word order, and meaning of resulting sentences. e.g. “Dog bites man” vs. “Man bites dog”. Syntactic development:

Answer 138

the meanings of words and sentences. e.g. “bank"

Answer 139

the use of language in conversation i.e. factors influencing the words and sentences one chooses as a function of the context: "hello", “hi”, "good morning”, "heyyyyy” Pragmatic development

Answer 140

Language comprehension: Refers to understanding what others say (or sign or write) Language production: Refers to actually speaking (or signing or writing) to others

Answer 141

humans. | universal and ability to create syntax.

Answer 142

The left hemisphere shows some specialization for language in infancy, although the degree of hemispheric specialization for language increases with age. Damage to Broca’s area, near the motor cortex, is associated with difficulties in producing speech Damage to Wernicke’s area, which is near the auditory cortex, is linked to difficulties with meaning

Answer 143

near the motor cortex and produces speech.

Answer 144

Near the auditory cortex, linked to meaning.

Answer 145

Sometime between age 5 and puberty.

Answer 146

the distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when talking to babies and very young children. It is common throughout the world, but it is not universal Its characteristics include a warm and affectionate tone, high pitch, extreme intonation, and slower speech accompanied by exaggerated facial expressions Infants prefer IDS to speech directed to adults.

Answer 147

Using the finite set of words in our vocabulary, we can put together an infinite number of sentences and express an infinite number of ideas.

Answer 148

An understanding of the properties and functions of language, helps with second language learning.

Answer 149

the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, and so forth with which a language is spoken. Variations in prosody are in large part responsible for why languages sound so different from one another, and why speakers of the same language can sound so distinctive.

Answer 150

Categorical. The two phonemes /b/ and /p/ occur along an acoustic continuum except that they differ in voice onset time (VOT)--the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating When adults listen to a tape of artificial speech sounds that gradually change from one sound to another, such as /ba/ to /pa/ or vice versa, they suddenly switch from perceiving one sound to perceiving the other.

Answer 151

At around 6 to 8 weeks of age, infants begin producing drawn out vowel sounds Infants become increasingly aware that their vocalizations elicit responses from others By 10-12 months distinct decrease in abilities to discriminate between non-native sounds

Answer 152

Sometime between 6 and 10 months of age, infants begin to babble by repeating strings of sounds comprising a consonant followed by a vowel As infants’ babbling becomes more varied, it conforms more to the sounds, rhythm, and intonation patterns of the language they hear daily. Babies who are exposed to the sign language of their deaf parents engage in “silent babbling.”

Answer 153

By 5 months of age, infants can pick their own name out of background conversations At 7 to 8 months of age, infants readily learn to recognize new words and remember them for weeks Infants may begin associating highly familiar words and referents by 6 months of age. By 10 months, children in the U.S. have comprehension vocabularies of about 11-154 words.

Answer 154

one word utterances, 10-15 months.

Answer 155

using a given word in a broader context than is appropriate, represents an effort to communicate despite a limited vocabulary

Answer 156

On average, children say their first word at around 13 months, experience a vocabulary spurt at around 19 months, and begin to produce simple sentences at around 24 months. Very variable.

Answer 157

referential or analytic style: analyze the speech stream into individual phonetic elements and words; their first utterances are often isolated, monosyllabic words. expressive or holistic style: pay more attention to the overall sound of language, its rhythmic and intonational patterns. wait-and-see style: often begin to speak very late but then have a large vocabulary and quickly acquire more words. These different styles, however, have little if any effect on the ultimate outcome of the process of learning to talk.

Answer 158

is the process of rapidly learning a new word simply from the contrastive use of a familiar and unfamiliar word.

Answer 159

leads children to expect a novel word to refer to a whole object, not a part

Answer 160

leads children to expect that a given entity will have only one name.

Answer 161

Children use pragmatic cues, aspects of the social context used for word learning. These include the adult’s focus of attention and intentionality. Children also use the linguistic context in which novel words appear to help infer their meaning. Syntactic bootstrapping is a strategy in which children use the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning.

Answer 162

End of second year, children’s first sentences are two-word utterances that have been described as telegraphic speech because nonessential elements are missing

Answer 163

speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular. e.g., “we goed to the park” However, parents are more likely to correct factually inaccurate statements than grammatically incorrect ones.

Answer 164

Chomsky claims that humans are born with innate linguistic knowledge “Universal grammar” – a set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages Makes it possible to learn language Key underlying tenet = Poverty of the stimulus argument. children do not hear all the structures of their target language. children do not receive explicit correction on the grammaticality of their utterances.

Answer 165

``` Nativist - proposes that the human brain contains an innate, self-contained language module that is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning. ```

Answer 166

Maintains that virtually everything about language development is influenced by its communicative function. Knowledge of the formal structural properties of language (that Chomsky considered innate) are learned through the process of interacting with other people pros: Remarkable sensitivity of young children to a host of pragmatic cues Their ability to use even quite subtle aspects of the social context to interpret utterances cons: Interactionist views are criticized for their limited attention to syntactic development Categorical speech perception from 1-4 months

Answer 167

Tomkins (1962) and Izard (1991) Emotions are innate and are distinct from one another from very early in life Each emotion is packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions

Answer 168

Campos et al. (1994), Saarni et al. (1998) Emotions are not distinct from one another early in life and that the environment influences emotional development The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal

Answer 169

Young infants smile from their earliest days, but the meaning of their smiles appears to change with age Social Smiles are directed toward people and first emerge as early as 6 to 7 weeks of age. After about 3 or 4 months of age, infants laugh as well as smile during a variety of activities (Kagan et al., 1978) At about 7 months, infants start to smile primarily at familiar people, rather than at people in general (Weinberg & Tronick, 1994) During the second year of life, children start to clown around and are delighted when they can make other people laugh (Dunn, 1998)

Answer 170

negative emotion and that anger and distress/pain are not differentiated in most contexts

Answer 171

Refers to feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are attached It is a salient and important type of fear and distress that tends to increase from 8 to 13 or 15 months and then begins to decline (Kagan, 1976)

Answer 172

Anger is likely to be distinct from other negative emotions by 4-8 months (Camras et al., 1991) During their second year, as children are better able to control their environments, they often show anger when control is taken away from them or when they get frustrated

Answer 173

Sadness is often exhibited in the same situations as anger, though less frequently (Izard et al., 1997) When young children are separated from their parents for extended periods of time, they can show intense and prolonged sadness (Robertson & Robertson, 1971)

Answer 174

Emerge during the second year of life At about 15 to 24 months of age, some children start to show embarrassment when they are made the centre of attention (Lewis, 1995) By 3 years of age, children’s pride is increasingly tied to their level of performance (Lewis et al., 1992) The situations likely to induce self-conscious emotions in children vary somewhat across cultures. Japanese culture avoid bestowing individual praise due to the belief that it encourages selfish behaviour; consequently, Japanese children are less likely than American children to be proud of personal success (Mascolo et al., 2003)

Answer 175

Guilt is associated with empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regret and the desire to make amends

Answer 176

Shame does not seem to be related to concern about others and involves a desire to hide and be less conspicuous

Answer 177

Guilt leads to more prosocial and responsible behaviour than shame When 2-year-olds “broke” a rigged doll during play, those who showed shame avoided the adult when she returned to the room and delayed telling her about the mishap, while those who showed guilt repaired the doll and told the adult shortly after she returned (Barrett et al., 1993) Parental practice often determines whether a child is likely to experience guilt (“You did a bad thing”) or shame (“You’re a bad boy/ girl”) (Hoffman, 2000)

Answer 178

By 4 to 7 months, infants can distinguish certain emotional expressions, such as happiness and surprise (Serrano et al., 1993 - habituation) At 8 to 12 months, children demonstrate social referencing, the use of a parent’s facial, gestural, or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations such as the approach of an unfamiliar dog (Saarni et al., 1998) By age 3, children in laboratory studies demonstrate a rudimentary ability to label a fairly narrow range of emotional expressions in pictures of on puppets’ faces (Bullock & Russell, 1985; Denham, 1986)

Answer 179

Display rules are a social group’s informal norms about when, where and how much one should display emotions, and when and where one should suppress/ mask them. May be facial displays (monitor, falsify and inhibit facial expressions) or verbal displays (monitor, falsify and inhibit speech) Prosocial display rules are used to protect another’s feelings (e.g., pretending to like someone’s cooking when you do not) Self-protective display rules are used for personal gain (e.g., pretending not to be bothered by losing a race)

Answer 180

discovered at 5-7 years, understand at age 10.

Answer 181

Moral judgments: Decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness, and justice (e.g. Deciding whether or not to steal a packet of crisps from a shop) Social conventional judgments: Decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organisation (e.g. Deciding whether or not to open a packet of crisps noisily in a cinema) Personal judgments: Decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration (e.g. Deciding whether or not to eat a packet of crisps for lunch)

Answer 182

The conscience of a young child primarily reflects internalized parental standards to promote compliance with rules and restraint of antisocial impulses (Hoffman, 1982, Konchanska, 2002) Two-year-olds show an appreciation for moral standards and rules and begin to exhibit signs of guilt when they do something wrong (Kopp, 2001) As they mature, children are more likely to take on their parents’ moral values if their parents use rational explanations rather than harsh discipline and if the children are securely attached (Konchanska et al., 2002)

Answer 183

MARSHMELLOWS.

Answer 184

Empathy is an emotional reaction to another’s emotional state or condition that is similar to that person’s state or condition

Answer 185

Sympathy is the feeling of concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to the other’s emotional state or condition; often an outcome of empathizing with another’s negative emotion or situation

Answer 186

Hostile aggression is motivated by the desire to injure others, either from anger or self-protection

Answer 187

Instrumental aggression is motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal, such as gaining possession of a peer’s toy

Answer 188

Children prone to reactive aggression (i.e., emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression) are particularly likely to perceive other people’s motives as hostile and to generate and accept aggressive responses to provocation Children prone to proactive aggression (i.e., unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire) tend to anticipate more positive social consequences for aggression

Developmental Flashcards

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