Developmental Psychology Flashcards
(226 cards)
1
Q
Developmental psychology
A
branch of psychology that describes and explains changes in human behavior over time. The study of changes and transitions that accompany physical growth or maturation
2
Q
How were children seen during the Middle Ages?
A
They were thought of as small, inferior adults who were expected to conform to adult standards for behavior at a very young age. Medieval paintings depicted children as miniature adults.
3
Q
In which period of time do we find the routes of modern thought concerning children?
A
In the period following Renaissance
4
Q
Who conformed the British empiricist school of thought?
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Thomas Hobbes George Berkeley David Hume James Mill John Stuart Mill
5
Q
What did the members of the British empiricist school of thought believe?
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They believed that all knowledge is gained through experience.
6
Q
What did Locke believe about children?
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He believed that children’s mind was a tabula rasa, or a blank slate at birth. Children were born without predetermined tendencies. Their development completely relied on experiences with the environment. It is the role of parents and society to mold the child to fit into society.
7
Q
What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau believe?
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Society is not only unnecessary but also a detriment to optimal development.
8
Q
Mention 1 relevant characteristic of the functionalist system of thought related to developmental psychology
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It is important to study the mind as it functions to help the individual adapt to the environment
9
Q
What is Charles Darwin contribution to developmental psychology?
A
He wrote a diary or biography of a child that was very useful and informative. He caused researchers to become interested in the study of individual differences in abilities such as hearing, seeing and problem solving.
10
Q
G. Stanley Hall
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considered the father of developmental psychology. Was one of the first psychologists to do empirical research on children. He was one of the founders of APA and the founder of child and adolescent psychology. Compiled hundreds of questionnaires on the views and opinions of children and compared them by age.
11
Q
John Watson
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Believed in the importance of environmental influences in child development and accepted Locke’s view of the tabula rasa. Watson’s theory placed a great responsibility on parents for raising competent children. Parents were charged with providing the right learning experiences while avoiding “sentimental” affection. he believed that emotions and thought were acquired through learning. Children are passively molded by the environment and their behavior occurs for imitation of their parents.
12
Q
What did John Watson believe about the methods for studying psychology?
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He maintained that only objective methods should be used to study behavior. Psychology should never consider consciousness, mental states, will, imagery, etc.
13
Q
What should be the goal of psychology according to Watson?
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to predict behavioral responses given particular stimuli; and vice versa.
14
Q
Arnold Gessel
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believed that development occurred as a maturational (or biological) process. regardless of practice or training. He was a “nativist” because he believed that much of development was biologically based and that developmental blueprint existed from birth.
15
Q
psychodynamic orientation
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System of thought that arose out of a clinical, rather than academic or research setting. These theories stress the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.
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Cognitive theories of development
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emphasize the thinking ability of people.
17
Q
Cognitive structuralists
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orientation of developmental psychology influenced by Jean Piaget
18
Q
Jean Piaget
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saw children more actively involved in their development since they constructed knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment. Humans experience an interaction between internal maturation and external experience that creates qualitative change
19
Q
Mention the 3 research methods frequently used in developmental psychology
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1) cross-sectional studies
2) longitudinal studies
3) sequential cohort studies
20
Q
Cross-sectional studies
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compare groups of subjects at different ages.
21
Q
Longitudinal studies
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compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time.
22
Q
Sequential cohort studies
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Compare a specific group of people combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. Several groups of different ages are studied over several years.
23
Q
Clinical method or case study method
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Attempts to collect facts about a particular child and his or her environment in order to gain a better perspective.
24
Q
Nature/Nurture controversy
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discussion about determinants of behavior: hereditary vs. environmental. It is now largely recognized that development is the result of a dynamic interaction between environmental and genetic forces.
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Nature side of the Nature/Nurture controversy
human capabilities are innate and individual differences are largely an effect of the person's genetic makeup.
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Nurture side of the Nature/Nurture controversy
human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience.
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Gregor Mendel
initiated the study of genetics. Observed the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants.
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What is the basic unit of heredity?
The gene
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What is an allele?
An alternative form of a gene
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Genotype
The total genetic complement (genetic makeup) of an individual
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Phenotype
the collection of expressed traits - observable characteristics of an individual
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Can individuals with identical phenotypes have different genotypes?
Yes. Brown eyes with two dominant brown eyes alleles and brown eyes with one dominant and one recessive allele.
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Can identical genotypes produce different phenotypes? Why?
Yes, due to variations in the environment.
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Where are genes located?
In chromosomes.
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Which pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the child?
The 23rd pair of chromosomes.
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Does every cell in our body have 23 pairs of chromosomes?
No, gametes have only 23 chromosomes.
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Which cells are diploid cells?
All that have 46 chromosomes
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Which cells are haploid cells?
The gametes or sperm cells and egg cells. Because they have 23 chromosomes.
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How much percent of common genes do children have with their parents?
aprox. 50%
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How much percent of common genes do siblings have?
50% including fraternal twins.
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How much percent of common genes do identical twins have?
100%
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R.C. Tryon
studied inheritance of maze-running ability in laboratory rats.
Tyron tested a large group of laboratory rats on maze-running skill. After an equal number of first trials, rats were divided into 3 groups: maze-bright, maze-dull, and intermediate rats. By selectively breeding them, Tryon mated rats with similar maze running traits over several generations. The difference between maze-bright and maze-dull rats intensified. => learning ability has a genetic basis. However, it happened only in the kind of maze that Tryon developed. In other types of maze, there was no difference.
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What are the three types of research methods that determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people?
1) Family studies
2) Twin studies
3) Adoption studies
44
Mention a finding regarding schizophrenia found using family studies.
risk of developing schizophrenia is 13 times higher in children of schizophrenic than general population. For siblings, it is 9 times higher => schizophrenia has an hereditary component.
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What is the main limitation of family studies?
Families share genes and environment. Therefore, it is difficult to discriminate if the influence comes from genes or from the environment.
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Twin studies
Generally compare monozygotic (identical twins MZ) and dizygotic (fraternal twins DZ) to distinguish effects of environment and genetics.
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What are the main findings of twin studies?
MZ twins tend to be more similar in regard to cognitive, social and emotional characteristics than DZ twins.
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What is the main criticism towards twin studies?
MZ twins are treated more similarly that DZ twins and MZ twins tend to imitate each other more than DZ twins. Therefore, MZ and DZ twins do not necessarily have the same environment.
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Adoption studies
Compare the similarities between the biological parent and the adopted child to similarities between the adoptive parents and adopted child. Adopted children's IQ is more similar to their biological parents.
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Lewis Terman
compared a group of children with high IQ's 135+ with normal children to discover similarities and differences. It was the first study on gifted children and it was a large-scale longitudinal study since measures were taken every five years.
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Down's Syndrome
genetic anomaly in which the individual has an extra 21 chromosome. Often have varying levels of retardation. One factor affecting the possibility of the genetic mutation is the age of the biological parents.
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
a genetic disorder, is a degenerative disease of the nervous system.
The disease results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine, an aminoacid found in milk and other foods, is lacking. Today infants are given tests for PKU and can avoid the effects of the disease with a strict diet.
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Which was the first genetic disease that could be tested in large populations?
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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Klinefelter's syndrome
when males posses an extra X chromosome. XXY configuration. They are sterile and often have mental retardation.
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Turner's syndrome
Females with only one X chromosome. They can't develop secondary sex characteristics. Often have physical abnormalities such as short fingers and unusually shaped mouths.
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Mention 4 genetic diseases
1) Down's Syndrome
2) Phenylketonuria
3) Klinefelter's syndrome
4) Turner's Syndrome
57
Mention the 4 stages of prenatal development
1) Zygote
2) germinal period
3) embryonic period
4) fetal period
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Describe the zygote prenatal stage
The sperm cell fertilizes the egg and forms a single cell (zygote or fertilized egg)
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describe the germinal period.
The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine wall. Lasts approx. 2 weeks after conception. The cell grows into 64 cells through cell division, and implants itself into the wall of the uterus.
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Describe the embryonic stage
8 weeks following the germinal period. Lasts approximately until the end of the second month. Embryo increases in size by 2 million percent. The embryo grows to about an inch long and begins to develop a human appearance.The limbs appear and the tail begins to recede. Fingers, toes and external genitals appear. The male embryo begins to produce androgen in the testes. Nerve cells in the spine develop and the first behaviors (moving the limbs) occur. This stage basically consists of organ formation.
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Describe the fetal period.
Takes place during the third month. measurable electrical activity takes place in the brain. In the remaining months, the fetus continues to grow in size. Quantitative growth occurs during this time, as well as movement (Called "quickening")
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What is the function of being in the uterus during the prenatal stages?
To have controlled conditions of temperature, chemical balance, orientation of the fetus with respect to gravity and atmospheric pressure.
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What is the function of the placenta?
to transmit nutrients to the fetus while returning waste-laden blood to the mom. The mom provides nutrients although the fetus also produce them.
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Mention viral infections that have deleterious effects on fetuses (7)
1) rubella
2) measles
3) mumps
4) hepatitis
5) influenza
6) chicken pox
7) herpes
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What is the risk of contracting rubella during pregnancy? (4)
or German measles
if you contract it during the firs two months, the baby can be born with:
cataracts, deafness, heart defects, mental retardation.
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What is thalidomide and what are its effects on fetuses? (6)
It is a tranquilizer normally prescribed during the 50's. Babies were born with missing and malformed limbs and defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears, and kidneys.
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Which could be some effects of protein deficiency? (3)
retard growth, mental retardation, reduction of immunities to disease.
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Which could be some effects of maternal malnutrition?
It is the leading cause of abnormal development
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Which could be some effects of maternal narcotic addiction?
produces chemically dependent infants who must undergo a traumatic withdrawal syndrome.
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Which could be some effects of regular cigarette smoking? (3)
slowed growth, increased fetal heart rate, greater chance of premature birth.
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Which could be some effects of daily use of alcohol? (2)
slowed growth, slowed psychological development,
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Which could be some effects of prenatal exposure to X-Rays?(6)
retardation, defects of skull, spinal cord and eyes, cleft palate, and limb deformities.
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Reflex
Behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus.
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Rooting reflex
or head turning reflex
| automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek.
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Sucking reflex
when an object is placed in the mouth. They are reflexes related to the feeding situation
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What are reflexes currently used for?
Before in human evolution -> adaptive purpose. Now they are used for assessing infant neural development by comparing the time at which each reflex appear to the established norms.
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Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads or by loud or frightening noises by flinging (lanzar, arrojar) out their arms, extending their fingers and then bringing their arms back to their bodies and essentially hugging themselves. It usually disappears after 4 months and its presence at one year is a strong suggestion of developmental difficulties.
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What has been the speculated use of the moro reflex by our ancestors?
Since prehuman ancestors may have lived in trees, this reflex may have served to prevent falling by instinctive clutching.
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Babinski reflex
toes spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated.
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Grasping reflex
or Palmar reflex
| occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.
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Uncoordinated movements in infants
kick, turn and wave their arms are the basis of later more coordinated movements.
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Jean Piaget's visions on development
one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology. Held that children pass through 4 stages of cognitive development, each stage being qualitatively different from the others. Cognitive growth is a continuous process that begins at birth.
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Schema (schemata)
organized patterns of behavior and/or thought.
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Behavioral schemata
Developed by infants, characterized by action tendencies
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Operational schemata
developed by older children, characterized by more abstract representations of cognition.
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Adaptation
Takes place through the complementary processes of accommodation and assimilation
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Assimilation
process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata. fitting new information into existing ideas
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Accommodation
When new information doesn't fit into existing schemata. It is the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to this new information.
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Mention Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development (in order)
1) Senrimotor
2) Preoperational
3) Concrete operational
4) Formal operational
the ages in which these stages take place may vary, but the order of the stages doesn't vary
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Sensorimotor stage (4 steps)
from birth to age two.
1) reflexive behavior cued by sensations
2) circular reactions (primary and secondary
3) object permanence
4) representation (visualizing or putting words to objects)
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Primary circular reactions
the infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement. This is the advent of goal-oriented behavior.
Example: when baby is hungry sucks indiscriminately and repeatedly (this is why it is called circular) trying to get satisfaction from the things he sucks.
Primary reactions are restricted to motions concerned with the body.
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Secondary circular reactions
The same principle as primary circular reactions but now directed towards manipulation of objects in the environment.
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Preoperational stage
Piaget
lasts from 2-7 years old.
The beginning of representational thought. During the preoperational stage children understand the concept that objects continue to exist even though they cannot perceive their existence.
- Centration
- Egocentrism
- Does not master Conservation
rapidly acquires words as symbols for things; inability ti perform mental operations, such as causality or true understanding of quantity
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Object permanence
when the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot perceive their existence. When "out of sight, out of mind" doesn't occur anymore.
Marks the beginnings of representational thought. This means that the child has begun to make mental representations of external objects and events. Once the child begins this type of thought, he enters the preoperational stage
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Conservation
the notion that physicsl properties of matter (such as volumen and quantity) do not change simply because the appearance of the matter changes
changes in shape are not changes in volume
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Centration
Piaget
tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon. For example, people in this stage cannot take the perspective of other people and cannot understand that relationships are reciprocal.
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Concrete operational stage
7-11 years old
children can conserve and take the perspective of others into account, but are limited to working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. These children have difficulty with abstract thought.
Understanding of concrete relationships, such as simple math and quantity
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Formal operational
starts in adolescence.
"think like a scientist" -> think logically about abstract ideas.
Pendulum experiment
understanding abstract relationships, such as logic, ratios and values.
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Mention 2 examples of centration
Example 1 A girl in this stage can tell you she has a sister, but will not be able to accurately tell you whether or not her sister has a sister.
Example 2: conservation
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Piaget's pendulum experiment
Children were given a pendulum that they could manipulate to vary in length of the string, weight, force of the push and height of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. Children in concrete operational stage erratically manipulate the equipment and even distorted the data to fit preconceived hypothesis, while adolescents were able to hold all variables but one constant at a given time, proceed methodologically and discover that the length of the string alone is what affects the frequency.
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What did Piaget believe regarding language development?
He believed that how we use language depends on which cognitive stage we are in. It was development of thought that directed development of language and not in the other direction.
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Criticism to Piaget's theory (3)
Method - piaget preferred observation to statistical methods.
Researchers have failed to find evidence of formal operations in adolescents and non-technological cultures.
Others argue that thinking like a scientist is not a true end point of a desirable or even relevant developmental process.
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Lev Vygotsky's cause of development
the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of various interpersonal and cultural rules (symbols, language, etc.).
Zone of proximal development
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Zone of proximal development
Skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. The child needs some guidance to demonstrate those skills and abilities. A child takes a cognitive test and gets X score, then the same child take the same test with guidance from an adult, getting score Y. The difference between score Y-X indicates the zone of proximal development.
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Mention the four basic components of language
1) phonology
2) semantics
3) syntax
4) pragmatics
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Phonology
Actual sound stem from language. The child must learn to produce and recognize the sounds of language, separating them from environmental sounds and speech sounds that do not denote differences in meaning.
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Categorical perception
the ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning.
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How many phonemes approx. are there in English?
or speech sounds - 40
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Semantics
the learning of word meanings. The child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represent physical objects, that certain words refer to entire categories (women) and others refer to specific members of categories (mommy).
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Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences. The child must notice the effects of word order on meaning.
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Pragmatics
consists of actual efficient use of a language. The same sentence will have 2 or more different meanings depending on how it is spoken. A child must learn to recognize these inflections and the effect they produce.
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babbling
important precursor of language. Children including deaf children spontaneously begin to babble during their first year.
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Lenneberg, Rebelsky and Nichols study
age babbling starts at the same age for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf parents, and deaf children. However, for hearing chlldren babbling continues and becomes more frequent reaching its highest frequency between 9-12 months. For deaf children, babbling ceases soon after it begins.
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Pettito and Marentette
Deaf children with parents using language appear to babble using their hands.
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describe language development at 18 months
the child may know dozens of words, but will usually use them alone. A single word can have different meanings (label, ask for something, etc).
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describe language development between 18-20 months
The child will begin combining words.
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How can one assess knowledge of language?
by measuring the ability to produce novel, grammatically correct sentences while refraining from producing nongrammatically correct ones. It also implies the ability to distinguish between such sentences.
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describe language development at 2 1/2 - 3 years
Children begin producing longer sentences. Vocabulary increases rapidly. Errors of growth increase
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Errors of growth
or overregulation
"I ran" --> "I runned"
Many of these errors are universal and have nothing to do with environment since children use these words that they have never heard. This suggests that language acquisition is not the result of imitation and reinforcement, but the active application of a dynamic, internalized set of linguistic rules.
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describe language development at 5 years
Language is substantially mastered.
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Noam Chomsky
believed that children must have some special innate capacity for language acquisition.
Transformational grammar
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Transformational grammar
Chomsky study.
He focused on syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that differ with meaning. Children learn to make such transformations effortlessly at an early age so this ability must be innate.
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Language acquisition device
(LAD) the innate capacity for language acquisition. It's thought to be triggered by exposure to language. Enables infants to listen to and process sounds.
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Sensitive period of development
is the time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of a particular ability.
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What did Chomsky believe was the critical period of language acquisition?
He thought it was from 2-puberty and he thought a child could never learn language after this period (that's why is called critical and not sensitive)
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What do most linguists believe is the sensitive period for language acquisition?
before the onset of puberty
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Genie
case of a girl that was isolated from human contact from age 2-13. She then was found and trained to acquire language. She could learn some aspects but not all of them. This lead to believe in a sensitive and not critical period of language development.
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Sigmund Freud
was a pioneer in charting personality and emotional growth. Human psychology and human sexuality are inextricably linked. Hypothesized 5 stages of psychosexual development.
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Libido
Sex or life drive. This force meant sexual gratifications and not just "sex" According to Freud it is present at birth. Freud believed that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes.
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Freud's stages of development overview
In each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different body parts. Each stage differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met.
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When does fixation occurs?
It occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. The children forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood.
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Freud's oral stage
0-1 year
gratification is obtained primarily through the putting of objects into the mouth by bitting and sucking.
Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth.
An orally fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency.
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Anal Stage
1-3 years
the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials.
Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive ordeliness or slopiness in the adult.
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Phallic Stage
or Oedipal stage
3-6
receives pleasure from self-estimulation of genitals
the central event of this stage is the resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the Electra conflict for female children. Both resolve this conflict by identifying with the same sex parent.
135
Oedipo conflict
The child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. He wishes to successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilt feelings by identifying with the father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values.
The child to a large extent de-eroticizes, or sublimates his libidinal energy. This may be expressed by collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork.
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Electra conflict
it is a similar process for girls. The do not have castration fear, but they have "penis envy". Girls are expected to be less sex-typed and be less morally developed.
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Latency stage
the libido is sublimated during this stage and lasts until puberty is reached.
Identification with same sex friends
focus on school and growing up
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Genital stage
beginning in puberty and lasting through adulthood.
Hormones reawaken sexual instincts
Love object is now non familial
If prior development has proceeded correctly, at this point the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships. But if sexual traumas have not been resolved, behaviors such as fetichism may result.
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Erik Erikson's theory
Holds a psychosocial theory. Development is a sequence of central life crises. In each crisis there is a possible favorable or unfavorable outcome. According to Erikson, development occurs through resolutions of conflicts between needs and social demands.
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Psychosocial theory
emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment.
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Erikson's first stage of development
0-1 year
trust vs. mistrust - trust
if resolved the child will come to trust his or her environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life.
142
Erikson's 2nd stage of development
1-3 years
autonomy vs- shame and doubt - independence
Favorable outcome: feeling of will and ability to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. Sense of competence and autonomy
Unfavorable outcome: sense of doubt and lack of control - a feeling that what happens to one is the result of external influences rather than one's own volition.
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Erikson's 3rd stage of development
3-6 years
initiative vs. guilt - purpose
Favorable outcomes: purpose, the ability to initiate activities and to enjoy accomplishment.
Unfavorable outcomes: be overwhelmed by the fear of punishment ->unduly restrict himself (excesivamente) or compensate by showing off.
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Erikson's 4th stage of development
6-12 years
industriosity vs inferiority - competency
Favorable outcomes: the child will feel competent, able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and to affect the world in a war the child desires.
Unfavorable outcomes: sense of inadequacy, sense of inability to act in a competent manner, low self-esteem.
145
Erikson's 5th stage of development
adolescence
identity vs. role confusion - sense of self
encompasses what Erikson calls "physiological revolution"
Favorable outcome: fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties
Unfavorable outcomes: confusion of one's identity and a kind of amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.
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Erikson's 6th stage of development
young adulthood
intimacy vs. isolation . love
Favorable outcomes: love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals
Unfavorable outcomes: avoidance to commitment, kind of alienation and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn (tímido, insociable) or only capable of superficial relationships with others.
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Erikson's 7th stage of development
middle age
generativity vs. stagnation - productivity and caring
Favorable outcomes: individual capable of being a productive, caring, contributing member of society.
Unfavorable outcomes: acquisition of a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent (que se permite excess), bored and self-centered with little care for others.
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Erikson's 8th stage of development
old age with approaching death
integrity vs. despair - wisdom and integrity
One reflects on his or her life with either a sense of integrity or a sense of despair.
Favorable outcomes: wisdom -> detached concern in life itself, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile; the individual is ready to face death.
Unfavorable outcomes: feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death.
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Temperament
is considered by many psychologists to be the central aspect of an individual's personality. It refers to individual differences and patterns of responding to the environment. There is disagreement regarding the best way to conceptualize and measure temperament
150
Mention some characteristics of temperament (4)
It is thought to be:
1) somewhat heritable
2) to emerge early in life (during infancy)
3) to be stable over time
4) to be pervasive across situations
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Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess
performed a longitudinal study to measure temperament. Proposed 3 categories of infant emotional and behavioral style
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Thomas and Chess 3 categories of infant emotional and behavioral style
1) Easy
2) Slow warm up
3) Difficult
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"Easy" category of infant emotional and behavioral style
Thomas and Chess
| generally displayed a positive mood, regularity in bodily functions and was easily adapted to new situations.
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"Slow warm up" category of infant emotional and behavioral style
Thomas and Chess
| initially withdrew, but was soon able to adapt to new situations
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"Difficult" category of infant emotional and behavioral style
Thomas and Chess
| tended to have negative emotions, irregular bodily functions and tended to withdraw in new situations.
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Mention ways to measure temperament
1) parental reports of child behavior
2) observations in naturalistic settings (home)
3) observations in laboratory settings
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Parental report as a way to measure temperament
The information is coming from someone very knowledgeable about the infant. However, risks biased responses
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Naturalistic observations as a way to measure temperament
Allow for more objective information than parental reports. However, they are time consuming.
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Laboratory observations as a way to measure temperament
use of experimental methods for controlled conditions. Since it is an artificial situation, may not be indicative of infant behavior during normal conditions.
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Crying
One way that infants are equipped to communicate their needs.
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Wolff
Conducted research with newborn babies to distinguish patterns of crying. Used spectrograms. Identified 3 patterns of crying.
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Mention the 3 patterns of crying identified by Wolff
1) basic crying -> usually associated with hunger
2) Angry crying -> associated with frustration
3) Pain cry -> following a painful stimulus.Even nonparent adults react with heart-rate accelerations following infant pain cries.
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How early do infants learn that their caregivers respond to crying
as early as the second month. Infants will cry when a person they are looking at leaves the room, and cease when the person returns.
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Describe how infants develop social smiling
At first, the smiling response is undifferentiated. Then, almost any face is sufficient to elicit a smile. At about five months, only familiar faces tend to elicit smiles.
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Social smiling
smiling associated with facelike patterns.
166
Describe the developmental course of fear response
At first, fear is evoked through any sudden change in level of stimulation. E.g. turning on the light, darkening a light room.
During the first year of life -> separation anxiety or stranger anxiety.
By the end of the first year, the fear response is reserved either for the sudden absence of a specific individual such as the mother or the presence of an object or a person that has been harmful in the past. Very often, the emotional response is context dependent: a novel stimulus may elicit a smile in a familiar context or fear if it is presented in an unfamiliar situation.
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Harry Harlow
Investigated attachment in baby Rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers. Studied contact comfort and bond formation
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Harry Harlow's most famous experiment
took newborn monkeys from their mothers 6-12 hours after their birth, and placed them in cages with so called surrogate mothers: wire cylinder with a feeding nipple attached, or wood cylinder covered with terry cloth (without nipple and couldn't provide food).
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What were the results of Harlow's experiments?
The monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother -> contact comfort was more essential in bond formation than providing for physical needs. Wire mother monkeys were less socially adept and took longer to socially integrate with other monkeys.
Raised completely isolated monkeys and they were severely dysfunctional.
Those who were isolated for up to a year could be brought into monkey society by other monkeys.
Those who were isolated for a year or more were beyond help -> sexually inept, overly aggressive and often abused by other monkeys.
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Therapist monkeys
Monkeys who took on the task of bringing dysfunctional monkeys in Harlow's experiment back into society.
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John Bowlby
Studied attachment in human children
Studied children brought up in foster homes and orphanages in which they were physically well-cared for but often lacked intimate bodily contact. These children tended to be timid and asocial.
Infants are motivated to attach to their mothers for positive reasons (wanting closeness) and for negative reasons (avoiding fear)
Emphasized the importance of mother-infant attachment during sensitive period to prevent character and stability problems.
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List the phases of attachment process according to Bowlby (6)
1) Pre-attachment phase
2) Second phase
3) 6 months
4) 9-12 months
5) second year
6) third year
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Describe the pre-attachment phase of Bowlby's sequence
Lasts several weeks,
| infants react indentically to every adult and smiling face.
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Describe the second phase of attachment according to Bowlby's sequence
The infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces.
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Describe the 6 months phase of attachment according to Bowlby's sequence
Only at six months do we see the infant seeking out and responding specifically to the mother.
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Describe the 9-12 months phase of attachment according to Bowlby's sequence
the bonding intensifies and the child begins expressing stranger anxiety (fear of strangers)
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Describe the 2nd year phase of attachment according to Bowlby's sequence
the child reacts to the mother's absence with strong protest (separation anxiety)
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Describe the 3rd year phase of attachment according to Bowlby's sequence
the child is able to separate from the mother without prolonged distress.
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Mary Ainsworth
demonstrated the universality of Bowlby's sequence by creating the "strange situation procedure" to study thee quality of the parent (mother)-child attachment relationship -> how children responded when their mothers returned to the room
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Explain Mary Ainsworth experiment (7 steps)
the attachment figure (mom) brings the child into an unfamiliar room with many toys. A series of 3 minute episodes follow.
1) the child is free to explore the room and play with the toys.
2) Next, a stranger comes into the room remaining silent at first and eventually talks with the mother and plays with the infant.
3) The mother leaves the room and the stranger plays with the infant
4) The mother returns and the stranger departs
5) The infant is left alone in the room
6) The stranger returns to the room and interacts with the infant
7) The mother returns and the stranger leaves the room
During the experiment Ainsworth observed and assessed infant behavior, focusing on the infant's reaction to separation and reunion behavior.
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Mention the three basic types of attachment relationships proposed by Ainsworth
1) insecure/avoidant attachment (Type A)
2) secure attachment (Type B)
3) insecure/resistant attachment (Type C)
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Describe Type A attachment
Mary Ainsworth
Insecure/avoidant attachment - avoidant
Infants that are not distressed when left alone with the stranger, and ignored their moms or avoid contact with the mother upon her return.
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Describe Type B attachment
Mary Ainsworth
securely attached infants
mildly distressed during separations from the mother but greet her positively when she returns. Ran and clung to their mothers
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Describe Type C attachment
Mary Ainsworth
insecure/resistant attachment - ambivalent
distressed during the separation and are inclined to resist physical contact with the mother upon her return - kicked their moms if they tried to comfort them
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Konrad Lorenz
ethologist who studied imprinting
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Imprinting
rapid formation of an attachment bond between an organism and an object in the environment. Often the stimulus is a specific physical feature of the mother, or a specific movement.
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Lorenz's experiment
Lorenz imitated the strut of a jackdaw, the infant jackdaw became attached to Lorenz. The bird became imprinted, following Lorenz and preferred the company of humans. Lorenz thought that imprinting takes place only during certain critical periods. Other ethologists reject this concept and prefer to think in terms of sensitive periods.
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Lawrence Kohlberg
worked on development of moral thought and action. Believed that there were 3 phases of moral thought each one consisting of 2 stages. Each stage builds upon another and is associated with changes in cognitive structure.
Heinz Dilemma
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Describe the 1st phase of moral development- Lawrence Kohlberg
preconventional morality/premoral
right and wrong are defined by the hedonistic consequences of a given action (punishment or reward).
First stage: orientation towards punishment and obedience - should avoid punishment
Stage 2: orientation towards reciprocity or instrumental relativist stage "I'll scratch your back, you scratch mine" - should gain rewards
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Describe the 2nd phase of moral development- Lawrence Kohlberg
Conventional phase of morality/ morality of conformity
based on social rules
Stage 3: "good girl, good boy" orientation one is looking for approval of others.
Stage 4: "law and order orientation" morality defined by the rules of authority
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Describe the 3rd phase of moral development- Lawrence Kohlberg
Post-conventional morality/ morality of Self-accepted principles
Stage 5: social contract orientation: moral rules are seen as convention that is designed to ensure the greater good. Beyond black or white of laws.
Stage 6: universal ethical principles - acting according these principles.
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How did Kohlberg determine in which moral stage a certain individual was?
test to determine the moral level of a given individual, the test consists of a series of hypothetical moral dilemmas. The subjects are asked what the character should do and give a reason. Based on the reasoning they give, the subjects are located in one of the six stages. One of these dilemmas was Heinz dilemma.. The actual decision isn't important, what is important is the processes underlying it.
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Criticism agains Kohlberg
Specially the postconventional stage was criticized. One of the main detractors is Carol Gilligan
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Carol Gilligan
males and females adopt different perspectives on moral issues due to the different ways in which boys and girls are raised. States that Kohlberg research was done solely on males and should not be used for females.
According to Gilligan, females adopt an interpersonal orientation that is neither more or less mature than the rule-bound thinking of men. Women's morality tends to be focused on caring and compassion, relationships and social responsibilities.
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Gender differences researchers have found
1) personality
2) social behavior
3) cognitive abilities mathematical, spatial and lingüistic
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Sociobiologists' perspective on gender development
evolutionary perspective -> men and women develop gender-stereotyped behaviors because of the historical survival function of these behaviors.
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Social learning theorists' perspective on gender development
social environment -> children model their behaviors after adults and other children of the same gender.
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Cognitive developmental theorists' perspective on gender development
stress cognitions that children have concerning gender
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Theory of self-socialization
Kohlberg three stages
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Mention the phases and stages of moral development according to Kohlberg's theory
PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- punishment and obedience orientation
- orientation towards reciprocity-instrumental relativist stage
CONVENTIONAL PHASE OF MORALITY
- good girl, nice boy orientation
- law and order orientation
POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- social contract orientation
- universal ethical principles
201
List the 3 stages of the theory of self-socialization
1) Gender labeling
2) Gender stability
3) Gender consistency
202
Describe the first stage of the theory of self-socialization
GENDER LABELING
2-3 years of age
children achieve gender identity -> they realize they are a member of a particular sex and accept that they are a boy/girl and can label themselves as such. They can also label others in terms of they sex.
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Describe the second stage of the theory of self-socialization
GENDER STABILITY
3-4 years of age
children can predict that they will still be a boy or a girl when they grow up. This understanding is superficial and dependent upon a physical notion of gender
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Describe the third stage of the theory of self-socialization
GENDER CONSISTENCY
4-7 years of age
children understand the permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or how one behaves.
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Gender schematic processing theory
proposed by Martin and Halverson
builds on Kohlberg's theory
As soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin concentrating on those behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender, and paying less attention ti those they believe are associated with the opposite gender.
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Diane Baumrind
worked on parental style and discipline. Parental style and aggression.
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What did Diane Baumrid measure? (4)
1) parental control
2) nurturance
3) clarity of communication
4) maturity demands
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List the 3 parenting styles Baumrid proposed
1) authoritarian
2) authoritative
3) permissive
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Describe authoritarian parenting style according to Baumrid
tend to use punitive control methods and lack emotional warmth. Children tend to have problems in school and in peer relations, withdrawn and unhappy.
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Describe authoritative parenting style according to Baumrid
have high demands for child compliance but score low on punitive control methods, utilize positive reinforcement and score high on emotional warmth. Help children understand and accept the norms of society so that they function well within it. Children are more socially and academically competent. Self-reliant, self-confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high-functioning kids.
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Describe permissive parenting style according to Baumrid
score very low on control/demand measures. Children tend to have problems in school and in peer relations.
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Differences between mothers and fathers
Patterns (of course, there are exceptions):
1) Fathers play more vigorously with their children than mothers
2) Mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interactions.
213
Describe reproductive system formation during pregnancy
6 weeks after conception, the presence of H-Y antigen causes testis to form, while the absence of H-Y antigen causes ovaries to form.
Approx. 3 months after conception, the testes secrete testosterone, which results in the formation of the rest of the male reproductive system, while the absence of testosterone (generally from ovaries developing instead of testes) results in the formation of the female reproductive system.
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Neonate
A newborn. Its behavior is reflexive
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Describe anatomic development during adolescence
13-19
At the beginning of puberty, the adrenal and pituitary secret hormones (androgen for boys and estrogen for girls) that cause the visible secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt
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Circular reactions
repeated behavior intended to manipulate environment
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Rochel Gelman
showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers. Gelman said they can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects.
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Piaget's stages of moral development
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STAGE 1 (4-7 years)
Imitates rule following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules
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STAGE 2 (7-11 years)
Understands rules and follows them
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STAGE 3 (12+ years)
Applies abstract thinking to rules, can change rules if all parties agree.
```
219
Define fixation
inability to move on to the next stage
220
Define regression
a return to an earlier stage
221
True or false: children identified as aggressive at an early age have a moderate tendency to remain aggressive through later life
True
222
Sex-typed behavior
Behavior that seems stereotypical for gender is low during pre-puberty, highest in young adulthood, and lower again in later life.
223
True or false: boys who reach puberty sooner than later have been shown to be psychologically and socially advantaged
True
224
True or false: Adolescents most often have educational and career aspirations like those of their parents
True
225
Hermaphrodite or intersex individuals
bron with both female and male genitals. This normally happens when a female fetus has been exposed to a higher than normal level of testosterone.
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Ways in which children can play
1) Symbolic play - starts 1-2 years old. Involves pretending roles, imagination and using objects to represent other things. When children reach this point, it is apparent that they can understand the concept of having one object stand for another.
2) Parallel play - usually occurs when children are 2-3 years old. When 2 children are standing next to each other and playing in similar styles but are playing by themselves and not interacting with one another.
