Developmental Psychology Flashcards
(40 cards)
What is development?
The relatively permanent changes in a person’s cognition, emotional, social and physical characteristics over a lifespan.
Name the 4 main theorists who studied developmental psychology and their theories.
- Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
- Erikson’s Stage Theory of Identity
- Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
What is a stage theory?
A theory that divides development into distinct stages that are characterised by qualitative differences in behaviour. These stages are experienced in a sequential order (a person cannot get to the last stage without passing the previous stages).
Define cognitive development.
Relatively enduring changes in a person’s mental abilities (e.g. problem-solving, reasoning, memory, learning and perception)
What is the main assumption of Piaget’s theory?
That the driving force of cognitive development is one wanting to make sense of the world.
What is a schema?
A mental idea of an aspect of the physical world and how to act on it. Schemata develop through a child’s experience and adaptation to their environment.
Compare assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation involves interpreting information and making it part of a pre-existing schema while accommodation involves changes in a person’s pre-existing schema to account for new information that does not fit the original schema (this process is more complex than assimilation).
What is the first stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Sensori-motor Stage (0-2 years) -
- learn about the world though sensory experiences and movement
- most behaviour is reflexive
- develop object permanence at approx. 8 months (the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen or heard)
What is the second stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years) -
AGES 2-4 - symbolic thinking - children can use symbols (e.g. words and pictures) to represent objects that are not present
- animism - belief that inanimate objects are real and have consciousness
AGES 4-7 - can only focus on one aspect at a time (centration)
- egocentrism - ability to only perceive the world from their own viewpoint
- reversibility - do not have the ability to mentally perform a series of events backwards to their starting point
What is the third stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
- mental operations can be applied to concrete objects/events that are immediately present
- have conservation - understanding that if nothing is added or taken away, the object must be the same
- classification (ability to categorise objects and events based on similarities)
- seriation (ability to put objects in order in respect to a quality)
What is the fourth stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Formal Operational Stage (11 years +)
-develop abstract thoughts with imagined realities and symbols
can solve hypothetical problems through deductive reasoning (uses logical rules to draw conclusions)
comprehend distance and time e.g. understand how long ago 200 was
understand fairness, and ideologies e.g. sexism, racism
idealistic thinking - start to realise desirable characteristics about themselves and compare themselves to others
What was Piaget’s test for object permanence?
Blanket and Ball Study (1963) -
Aim: to investigate the age that children develop object permanence.
Procedure: Piaget hid a toy under a blanket in front of the child and observed whether or not the child looked for it. Searching for the toy was evidence of object permanence.
Findings: Only the children of a minimum age of 8 months searched for the ball
Conclusion: Children acquire object permanence at 8 months as they can form a mental representation of the idea in their minds.
What was Piaget’s test for egocentrism?
Piaget’s 3 Mountain Task (1956) -
Aim: To investigate whether children under the age of 7 can understand that others see the world differently to them.
Procedure: Children aged 4-8 were shown a mountain scene on a tabletop that they could walk around. They sat on one side while being shown 10 pictures of different views of the model. A doll was also placed on the opposite side of the model and they had to choose the photo that depicted what the doll would see.
Findings: 4 year olds chose their own view, 6 year olds showed some ability to see a perspective besides their own but made mistakes while 7-8 year olds could choose the perspective of the doll.
Conclusion: Children younger than 7 are still egocentric and fail to understand that there are different perspectives of the world besides their own.
What was Piaget’s test for reaching the formal operational stage?
Pendulum Task (1958) - Aim: To determine whether a child had reached the formal operational stage. Procedure: Children were asked which factor had the greatest effect on the speed of the swimming pendulum (length of the string, weight of the pendulum or force of the push). The children had a pendulum where they could change these variables. Findings: Older children determined that length had the greatest impact by changing one variable at a time in a systematic way while younger children typically changed multiple variables at the same time, meaning they did not reach the solution. Conclusion: Children who determined that length had the greatest effect were in the formal operation stage as they had the ability to systematically reason by changing one factor at a time.
Evaluate Piaget’s theory.
(+) Has had a significant impact on psychology and influenced research on the way children think and learn
(+) Research has supported Piaget’s observations on the sequences of cognitive development and the notion that cognitive abilities occur across cultures
(-) Conducted cognitive tests and observations on his own children so methodology is questioned, lacks ecological validity as it was tested in laboratory conditions instead of real world scenarios and the sample was a small group of children of well-educated upper-class professionals from Western cultures (findings are ungeneralisable)
(-) Siegal demonstrated a lack of internal validity (construct validity) in Piaget’s experimentation instead proposing children’s inability to conserve is more based on language used by the adult administering the test.
What are the main assumptions of Erikson’s theory?
That identity formation (development of a person’s long-lasting personality characteristics) is a lifelong process that occurs through cognitive processes and social experiences (crises) at different stages of a person’s life.
According to Erikson, what is a psychosocial crisis and what were his ideas regarding crises?
A personal conflict that acts as a turning point in development. According to Erikson, every person experiences 8 psychosocial crises in a sequential order with each crisis having two opposing outcomes. Successful development in a certain stage occurs when the stage is resolved through a healthy balance between both outcomes (favouring the positive one), and the resolutions of these crises shapes one’s personality formation.
What is the first stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Trust vs Mistrust (12-18 months)
Infants depend on others (mainly parents) for food and comfort and must trust that they will provide these. If these needs are consistently met, children will view the world as safe and predictable, developing trust for others. If a caregiver provides inadequate or inconsistent care, the child will feel like they cannot trust others.
What is the second stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18 months-3 years)
Toddlers try to establish autonomy (ability to act independently and feel self-reliance) through learning to walk, talk and use the toilet. Successful resolution of this stage allows children to feel confident in their ability to control their body, behaviour and environment (occurs when parents encourage independence e.g. choosing own clothes and toys). When children are controlled or criticised in their attempts to become autonomous, they begin to doubt their own abilities and thus, become dependent on others.
What is the third stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Initiative vs Guilt (3-5 years)
Children develop initiative (ability to plan, think for oneself and act with purpose) as their social and motor skills develop. Children who are given freedom during play are likely to resolve this crisis and are able to lead others. Children who are discouraged when they self-initiate activities are likely to feel guilty.
What is the fourth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Industry vs Inferiority (5-12 years)
Children begin to become productive members of society (e.g. by going to school). Children who are praised by parents and teachers for their industry/work will feel pride and competence in their skills, while children whose efforts to be industrious are put down do not resolve this conflict, resulting in feelings of inferiority.
What is the fifth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 years)
This stage involves combining the resolutions of earlier conflicts to develop a sense of identity (overall image humans have of themselves). Adolescents think about how others view them and compare their ideals (e.g. ideal family and society) to their own lives. Successful resolution results in a person knowing who they are, who they will be in the future and their values. Unsuccessful resolution may lead to confusion (characterised by a lack of purpose, indecision and avoidance of commitment).
What is the sixth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Intimacy vs Isolation (18-25 years)
Builds on the previous stage as a person cannot have intimacy without an established self of identity (e.g. knowing what they like and don’t like). People explore personal relationships in this stage, with successful resolution meaning a person can form intimate, long-lasting relationships. If a person does not have a strong sense of self, they will find it hard to develop intimacy, causing them to feel isolated or develop shallow relationships.
What is the seventh stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?
Generativity vs Stagnation (25-65 years)
People become focused on needs beyond their own and try to contribute to society (e.g. through their occupation or by having children). This stage is successfully resolved when adults feel they have left a legacy for the future, and unsuccessful resolution results in stagnation (a lack of personal growth or concern with the interests of society).
